A daeva (

Avestan Avestan ( ) is the liturgical language of Zoroastrianism. It belongs to the Iranian languages, Iranian branch of the Indo-European languages, Indo-European language family and was First language, originally spoken during the Avestan period, Old ...

: 𐬛𐬀𐬉𐬎𐬎𐬀 ''daēuua'') is a

Zoroastrian Zoroastrianism ( ), also called Mazdayasnā () or Beh-dīn (), is an Iranian religion centred on the Avesta and the teachings of Zarathushtra Spitama, who is more commonly referred to by the Greek translation, Zoroaster ( ). Among the wo ...

supernatural entity In ontology and the philosophy of mind, a non-physical entity is an object that exists outside physical reality. The philosophical schools of idealism and dualism assert that such entities exist, while physicalism asserts that they do not. Positing ...

with disagreeable characteristics. In the

Gathas The Gathas () are 17 hymns in the Avestan language from the Zoroastrian oral tradition of the Avesta. The oldest surviving text fragment dates from 1323 CE, but they are believed by scholars to have been composed before 1000 BCE and passed dow ...

, the oldest texts of the Zoroastrian canon, the ''daeva''s are " gods that are (to be) rejected". This meaning is – subject to interpretation – perhaps also evident in the

Old Persian Old Persian is one of two directly attested Old Iranian languages (the other being Avestan) and is the ancestor of Middle Persian (the language of the Sasanian Empire). Like other Old Iranian languages, it was known to its native speakers as (I ...

"''daiva'' inscription" of the 5th century

BCE Common Era (CE) and Before the Common Era (BCE) are year notations for the Gregorian calendar (and its predecessor, the Julian calendar), the world's most widely used calendar era. Common Era and Before the Common Era are alternatives to the o ...

. In the ''Younger

Avesta The Avesta (, Book Pahlavi: (), Persian language, Persian: ()) is the text corpus of Zoroastrian literature, religious literature of Zoroastrianism. All its texts are composed in the Avestan language and written in the Avestan alphabet. Mod ...

'', the daevas are

divinities Divinity (from Latin ) refers to the quality, presence, or nature of that which is divine—a term that, before the rise of monotheism, evoked a broad and dynamic field of sacred power. In the ancient world, divinity was not limited to a single ...

that promote chaos and disorder. In later tradition and folklore, the ''dēw''s (Zoroastrian

Middle Persian Middle Persian, also known by its endonym Pārsīk or Pārsīg ( Inscriptional Pahlavi script: , Manichaean script: , Avestan script: ) in its later form, is a Western Middle Iranian language which became the literary language of the Sasania ...

;

New Persian New Persian (), also known as Modern Persian () is the current stage of the Persian language spoken since the 8th to 9th centuries until now in Greater Iran and surroundings. It is conventionally divided into three stages: Early New Persian (8th ...

''div''s) are personifications of every imaginable evil. Over time, the Daeva myth as Div became integrated to

Persian mythology Iranian mythology, or Persian mythology in western term (), is the body of the myths originally told by ancient Persians and other Iranian peoples and a genre of ancient Persian folklore. These stories concern the origin and nature of the worl ...

. ''Daeva'', the

Iranian language The Iranian languages, also called the Iranic languages, are a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages in the Indo-European language family that are spoken natively by the Iranian peoples, predominantly in the Iranian Plateau. The Iranian language ...

term, shares the same origin of "

Deva Deva may refer to: Arts and entertainment Fictional characters * Deva, List of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd edition monsters, an ''Advanced Dungeons & Dragons'' 2nd edition monster * Deva, in the 2023 Indian film ''Salaar: Part 1 – Ceasefir ...

" of

Hinduism Hinduism () is an Hypernymy and hyponymy, umbrella term for a range of Indian religions, Indian List of religions and spiritual traditions#Indian religions, religious and spiritual traditions (Sampradaya, ''sampradaya''s) that are unified ...

, which is a cognate with

Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...

deus ("god") and

Greek Greek may refer to: Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...

Zeus Zeus (, ) is the chief deity of the List of Greek deities, Greek pantheon. He is a sky father, sky and thunder god in ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, who rules as king of the gods on Mount Olympus. Zeus is the child ...

. While the word for the

Vedic upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas ( or ; ), sometimes collectively called the Veda, are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed ...

spirits and the word for the Zoroastrian entities are etymologically related, their function and thematic development is altogether different. Originally, the term was used to denote beings of cultural folklore which predate use in scripture. Equivalents for Avestan ''daeva'' in

Iranian languages The Iranian languages, also called the Iranic languages, are a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages in the Indo-European language family that are spoken natively by the Iranian peoples, predominantly in the Iranian Plateau. The Iranian langu ...

include

Pashto Pashto ( , ; , ) is an eastern Iranian language in the Indo-European language family, natively spoken in northwestern Pakistan and southern and eastern Afghanistan. It has official status in Afghanistan and the Pakistani province of Khyb ...

, Balochi,

Kurdish Kurdish may refer to: *Kurds or Kurdish people *Kurdish language ** Northern Kurdish (Kurmanji) **Central Kurdish (Sorani) **Southern Kurdish ** Laki Kurdish *Kurdish alphabets *Kurdistan, the land of the Kurdish people which includes: **Southern ...

''dêw'',

Persian Persian may refer to: * People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language ** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples ** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...

''dīv''/''deev''. The Iranian word was borrowed by

Old Armenian Classical Armenian (, , ; meaning "literary anguage; also Old Armenian or Liturgical Armenian) is the oldest attested form of the Armenian language. It was first written down at the beginning of the 5th century, and most Armenian literature fro ...

as ''

dew Dew is water in the form of droplets that appears on thin, exposed objects in the morning or evening due to condensation. As the exposed surface cools by thermal radiation, radiating its heat, atmospheric moisture condenses at a rate grea ...

'', Georgian as ''

devi ''Devī'' (; ) is the Sanskrit word for 'goddess'; the masculine form is Deva (Hinduism), ''deva''. ''Devi'' and ''deva'' mean 'heavenly, divine, anything of excellence', and are also gender-specific terms for a deity in Hinduism. The concept ...

'',

Urdu Urdu (; , , ) is an Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in South Asia. It is the Languages of Pakistan, national language and ''lingua franca'' of Pakistan. In India, it is an Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of Indi ...

as ''deo'', and

Turkish Turkish may refer to: * Something related to Turkey ** Turkish language *** Turkish alphabet ** Turkish people, a Turkic ethnic group and nation *** Turkish citizen, a citizen of Turkey *** Turkish communities in the former Ottoman Empire * The w ...

as ''dev'' with the same negative associations in those languages. In English, the word appears as ''daeva'', ''div'', ''deev'', and in the 18th century fantasy novels of

William Thomas Beckford William Thomas Beckford (29 September 1760 – 2 May 1844) was an English novelist, art critic, planter and politician. He was reputed at one stage to be England's richest commoner. He was the son of William Beckford (politician), William Beckf ...

as ''dive''. It has been speculated that the concept of the daevas as a malevolent force may have been inspired from the Scythian gods.Mary Boyce, A History of Zoroastrianism: Volume II: Under the Achaemenians, BRILL, 1982

Academic issues

Problems of interpretation

Old Avestan ''daēuua'' or ''daēva'' derives from Old Iranian ''*daiva'', which in turn derives from Indo-Iranian ''*daivá-'' "god", reflecting

Proto-Indo-European Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family. No direct record of Proto-Indo-European exists; its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-Euro ...

''*deywós'' with the same meaning. For other Indo-European derivatives, see Dyeus. The

Vedic Sanskrit Vedic Sanskrit, also simply referred as the Vedic language, is the most ancient known precursor to Sanskrit, a language in the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan subgroup of the Indo-European languages, Indo-European language family. It is atteste ...

cognate of Avestan ''daēuua'' is '' devá-'', continuing in later

Indo-Aryan languages The Indo-Aryan languages, or sometimes Indic languages, are a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages in the Indo-European languages, Indo-European language family. As of 2024, there are more than 1.5 billion speakers, primarily concentrated east ...

as ''dev''. Because all cognates of Iranian ''*daiva'' have a positive connotation, but "no known Iranian dialect attests clearly and certainly the survival of a positive sense for ld Iranian''*daiva-''",. in the 19th- and 20th-century a great deal of academic discussion revolved around questions of how Iranian ''daeva'' might have gained its derogatory meaning. This "fundamental fact of Iranian linguistics" is "impossible" to reconcile with the testimony of the Gathas, where the ''daeva''s, though rejected, were still evidently gods that continued to have a following. The same is true of the ''daiva'' inscription, where the ''daiva'' are the gods of (potential) rebels, but still evidently gods that continued to have a following. The issue is related to the question of how Zoroaster's own contribution to Iranian religion might be defined. In the older early/mid 20th-century view (so-called reform hypothesis), in which Zoroaster was perceived to be a revolutionary reformer, it was assumed that the ''daeva''s must have been the "national" gods (see comparison with Indic usage, below) of pre-Zoroaster-ian

Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...

, which Zoroaster had then rejected.. This attribution to Zoroaster is also found in the 9th/10th-century books of Zoroastrian tradition,. and Gershevitch. and others following Lommel. consider the progression from "national" gods to demons to be attributable to the "

genius Genius is a characteristic of original and exceptional insight in the performance of some art or endeavor that surpasses expectations, sets new standards for the future, establishes better methods of operation, or remains outside the capabiliti ...

of Zoroaster". Subsequent scholarship (so-called progressive hypothesis) has a more differentiated view of Zoroaster, and does not follow the unprovable assumption that prehistoric Iranian religion ever had "national" gods (and thus also that the ''daeva''s could have represented such a group), nor does it involve hypothetical conjecture of whose gods the ''daeva''s might/might not have been. While the progressive hypothesis gives Zoroaster credit for giving Iranian religion a moral and ethical dimension, it does not (with one notable exception) give Zoroaster credit for the development of the ''daeva''s into demons. It assumes that the development was gradual, and that a general distrust of the ''daeva''s already existed by the time the Gathas were composed.

In comparison with Vedic usage

Although with some points of comparison such as shared etymology, Indic ''devá-'' is thematically different from Avestan ''daēva''. While in the post-Rigvedic Indic texts the conflict between the two groups of ''deva''s and ''

asura Asuras () are a class of beings in Indian religions, and later Persian and Turkic mythology. They are described as power-seeking beings related to the more benevolent Devas (also known as Suras) in Hinduism. In its Buddhist context, the wor ...

s'' is a primary theme, this is not a theme in either the Rigveda nor in the Iranian texts, and therefore cannot have been a feature of a common heritage. The use of ''

Asura Asuras () are a class of beings in Indian religions, and later Persian and Turkic mythology. They are described as power-seeking beings related to the more benevolent Devas (also known as Suras) in Hinduism. In its Buddhist context, the wor ...

'' in the Rigveda is unsystematic and inconsistent and "it can hardly be said to confirm the existence of a category of gods opposed to the ''deva''s". Indeed, RigVedic ''

'' is variously applied to most gods, including many of the ''asura''s. Likewise, at the oldest layer, Zoroastrianism's ''daeva''s are originally also gods (albeit gods to be rejected), and it is only in the younger texts that the word evolved to refer to evil creatures. And the Zoroastrian ''ahura''s (etymologically related to the Vedic ''asura''s) are also only vaguely defined, and only three in number. Moreover, the daemonization of the ''asura''s in India and the daemonization of the ''daeva''s in Iran both took place "so late that the associated terms cannot be considered a feature of Indo-Iranian religious dialectology". The view popularized by Nyberg,.

Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin (né Jacques Duchesne, born 21 April 1910 in Jupille and died 8 February 2012 in Liège) was a Belgian linguist, philologist, and orientalist who was professor at the University of Liège and specialized in ancient I ...

, and Widengren. of a prehistorical opposition of ''*asura/daiva'' involves "interminable and entirely conjectural discussions" on the status of various Indo-Iranian entities that in one culture are ''asura''s/''ahura''s and in the other are ''deva''s/''daeva''s (see examples in the Younger Avesta, below).

In scripture

In Zoroaster's revelation

In the

, the oldest texts of Zoroastrianism and credited to

Zoroaster Zarathushtra Spitama, more commonly known as Zoroaster or Zarathustra, was an Iranian peoples, Iranian religious reformer who challenged the tenets of the contemporary Ancient Iranian religion, becoming the spiritual founder of Zoroastrianism ...

himself, the ''daeva''s are not yet the demons that they would become in later Zoroastrianism; though their rejection is notable in the Gathas themselves. The Gathas speak of the ''daeva''s as a group, and do not mention individual ''daeva''s by name. In these ancient texts, the term ''daeva''s (also spelled 'daēuuas') occurs 19 times; wherein ''daeva''s are a distinct category of "quite genuine gods, who had, however, been rejected". In ''

Yasna Yasna (;"Yasna"
''

asha ''Asha'' () or ''arta'' (; ) is a Zoroastrian concept with a complex and highly nuanced range of meaning. It is commonly summarized in accord with its contextual implications of 'truth' and 'right' (or 'righteousness'), 'order' and 'right wor ...

-'') from falsehood (''druj-''). They are consequently in "error" (''aēnah-''), but are never identified as ''drəguuaṇt-'' "people of the lie". The conclusion drawn from such ambiguity is that, at the time the Gathas were composed, "the process of rejection, negation, or daemonization of these gods was only just beginning, but, as the evidence is full of gaps and ambiguities, this impression may be erroneous". In Yasna 32.4, the ''daeva''s are revered by the ''Usij'', described as a class of "false priests", devoid of goodness of mind and heart, and hostile to cattle and husbandry (''Yasna'' 32.10–11, 44.20). Like the ''daeva''s that they follow, "the ''Usij'' are known throughout the seventh region of the earth as the offspring of ''aka mainyu,'' ''druj,'' and arrogance. (''Yasna'' 32.3)".. ''Yasna'' 30.6 suggests the ''daeva''-worshipping priests debated frequently with Zoroaster, but failed to persuade him.

In the Younger Avesta

In the Younger

, the ''daeva''s are unambiguously hostile entities. In contrast, the word ''daevayasna-'' (literally, "one who sacrifices to ''daeva''s") denotes adherents of other religions and thus still preserves some semblance of the original meaning in that the ''daeva-'' prefix still denotes "other" gods. In ''

Yasht A Yasht (, ) is a hymn of praise composed in the Young Avestan language and dedicated to specific Zoroastrian divinities. The term commonly applies to the collection of 21 Yashts, although it may also refer to other texts within the wider Avest ...

'' 5.94 however, the ''daevayasna-'' are those who sacrifice to

Anahita Anahita is the Old Persian form of the name of an Iranian goddess and appears in complete and earlier form as ('), the Avestan name of an Indo-Iranian cosmological figure venerated as the divinity of "the Waters" ( Aban) and hence associat ...

during the hours of darkness, i.e., the hours when the ''daeva''s lurk about, and ''daevayasna-'' appears then to be an epithet applied to those who deviate from accepted practice and/or harvested religious disapproval.. The ''

Vendidad The Vendidad /ˈvendi'dæd/, also known as Videvdat, Videvdad or Juddēvdād, is a collection of texts within the greater compendium of the Avesta. However, unlike the other texts of the Avesta, the ''Vendidad'' is an ecclesiastical code, not a ...

'', a contraction of ''vi-daevo-dāta'', "given against the ''daeva''s", is a collection of late Avestan texts that deals almost exclusively with the ''daeva''s, or rather, their various manifestations and with ways to confound them. ''Vi.daeva-'' "rejecting the ''daeva''s" qualifies the faithful Zoroastrian with the same force as ''mazdayasna-'' ('Mazda worshiper'). In ''Vendidad'' 10.9 and 19.43, three divinities of the

Vedic pantheon Rigvedic deities are deities mentioned in the sacred texts of Rigveda, the principal text of the historical Vedic religion of the Vedic period (1500–500 BCE). There are 1,028 hymns (sūkta) in the Rigveda. Most of these hymns are dedicated to ...

Angra Mainyu Angra Mainyu (; ) is the Avestan name of Zoroastrianism's hypostasis of the "destructive/evil spirit" and the main adversary in Zoroastrianism either of the Spenta Mainyu, the "holy/creative spirits/mentality", or directly of Ahura Mazda, th ...

in a list of demons: Completely adapted to Iranian phonology, these are ''Indra'' (Vedic

Indra Indra (; ) is the Hindu god of weather, considered the king of the Deva (Hinduism), Devas and Svarga in Hinduism. He is associated with the sky, lightning, weather, thunder, storms, rains, river flows, and war. volumes Indra is the m ...

), Sarva (Vedic Sarva, i.e.

Rudra Rudra (/ ɾud̪ɾə/; ) is a Rigvedic deity associated with Shiva, the wind or storms, Vayu, medicine, and the hunt. One translation of the name is 'the roarer'. In the ''Rigveda'', Rudra is praised as the "mightiest of the mighty". Rudra ...

), and Nanghaithya (Vedic

Nasatya The Ashvins (, ), also known as the Ashvini Kumaras and Asvinau,, §1.42. are Hindu twin gods associated with medicine, health, healing, sciences, and the twilight. In the ''Rigveda'', they are described as youthful divine twin horsemen, tra ...

). The process by which these three came to appear in the Avesta is uncertain. Together with three other ''daeva''s, Tauru, Zairi and Nasu, that do not have Vedic equivalents, the six oppose the six

Amesha Spenta In Zoroastrianism, the Amesha Spenta (—literally "Immortal (which is) holy/bounteous/furthering") are a class of seven divine entities emanating from Ahura Mazda, the highest divinity of the religion. Later Middle Persian variations of the ter ...

s. ''Vendidad'' 19.1 and 19.44 have Angra Mainyu dwelling in the region of the ''daeva''s which the ''Vendidad'' sets in the north and/or the nether world (''Vendidad '' 19.47, ''Yasht'' 15.43), a world of darkness. In Vendidad 19.1 and 19.43–44, Angra Mainyu is the ''daevanam daevo'', "''daeva'' of ''daeva''s" or chief of the ''daeva''s. The superlative ''daevo.taema'' is however assigned to the demon Paitisha ("opponent"). In an enumeration of the ''daeva''s in Vendidad 1.43, Angra Mainyu appears first and Paitisha appears last. "Nowhere is Angra Mainyu said to be the creator of the ''daeva''s or their father." The ''Vendidad'' is usually recited after nightfall since the last part of the day is considered to be the time of the demons. Because the ''Vendidad'' is the means to disable them, this text is said to be effective only when recited between sunset and sunrise.

In inscriptions

Old Persian ''daiva'' occurs twice in Xerxes' ''daiva inscription'' (XPh, early 5th century BCE). This trilingual text also includes one reference to a ''daivadana'' "house of the ''daiva''s", generally interpreted to be a reference to a shrine or sanctuary. In his inscription, Xerxes records that "by the favour of

Ahura Mazda Ahura Mazda (; ; or , ),The former is the New Persian rendering of the Avestan form, while the latter derives from Middle Persian. also known as Horomazes (),, is the only creator deity and Sky deity, god of the sky in the ancient Iranian ...

I destroyed that establishment of the daivas and I proclaimed, 'The daivas thou shalt not worship!'". This statement has been interpreted either one of two ways. Either the statement is an ideological one and ''daiva''s were gods that were to be rejected, or the statement was politically motivated and ''daiva''s were gods that were followed by (potential) enemies of the state..

In tradition and folklore

In Zoroastrian tradition

In the

texts of Zoroastrian tradition, the ''dew''s are invariably rendered with the

Aramaic Aramaic (; ) is a Northwest Semitic language that originated in the ancient region of Syria and quickly spread to Mesopotamia, the southern Levant, Sinai, southeastern Anatolia, and Eastern Arabia, where it has been continually written a ...

ideogram ''ŠDYA'' or the more common plural ''ŠDYAʼn'' that signified "demons" even in the singular. ''Dew''s play a crucial role in the cosmogonic drama of the ''

Bundahishn The ''Bundahishn'' (Middle Persian: , "Primal Creation") is an encyclopedic collection of beliefs about Zoroastrian cosmology written in the Book Pahlavi script. The original name of the work is not known. It is one of the most important extant ...

'', a Zoroastrian view of creation completed in the 12th century. In this text, the evil spirit ''Ahriman'' (the middle Persian equivalent of Avestan

) creates his hordes of ''dew''s to counter the creation of ''Ormuzd'' (Avestan

). This notion is already alluded to in the ''Vendidad'' (see ''Younger Avestan'' texts above), but only properly developed in the ''Bundahishn''. In particular, Ahriman is seen to create six ''dew''s that in Zoroastrian tradition are the antitheses of the ''Amahraspand''s (Avestan

s). Mirroring the task of the Amesha Spentas through which Ahura Mazda realized creation, the six antitheses are the instrument through which Angra Mainyu creates all the horrors in the world. Further, the arch-''daeva''s of ''

'' 10.9 and 19.43 are identified as the antithetical counterparts of the Amesha Spentas. The six arch-demons as listed in the ''Epistles of Zadspram'' (WZ 35.37) and the ''Greater Bundahishn'' (GBd. 34.27) are:. * '' Akoman'' of "evil thought" opposing ''Wahman''/''Bahman'' of "good thought" (Av. Aka Manah versus

Vohu Manah Vohu Manah (Avestan: 𐬬𐬊𐬵𐬎⸱𐬨𐬀𐬥𐬀𐬵 ''vohu manah'') is the Avestan language term for a Zoroastrian concept, generally translated as "Good Purpose", "Good Mind", or "Good Thought", referring to the good state of mind th ...

) * '' Indar'' that freezes the minds of the righteous opposing ''Ardawahisht'' of "best truth" (Av. Iṇdra versus

Asha Vahishta ''Asha'' () or ''arta'' (; ) is a Zoroastrian concept with a complex and highly nuanced range of meaning. It is commonly summarized in accord with its contextual implications of 'truth' and 'right' (or 'righteousness'), 'order' and 'right work ...

). * '' Nanghait'' of discontent opposing ''Spendarmad'' of "holy devotion" (Av. Nanghaithya/Naonghaithya versus

Spenta Armaiti In Zoroastrianism, Spenta Armaiti (, "Holy Devotion") is one of the Amesha Spentas, the seven divine manifestations of Wisdom and Ahura Mazda. While older sources present the Amesha Spentas more as abstract entities, in later sources Spenta Armai ...

) * '' Sawar''/''Sarvar'' of oppression opposing ''Shahrewar'' of "desirable dominion" (Av. Saurva versus

Kshathra Vairya Kshatra Vairya (; also Šahrewar Middle Persian: 𐭱𐭲𐭥𐭩𐭥𐭥,Šahrewar
Iranica Online and Xšaθra 𐬑 ...

) * ''Tauriz''/''Tawrich'' of destruction opposing ''Hordad'' of "wholeness" (Av. Taurvi versus

Haurvatat Haurvatat (Help:IPA/English, /ˈhəʊrvətət/; ) is the Avestan language word for the Zoroastrianism, Zoroastrian concept of "wholeness" or "perfection." In post-Gathic Zoroastrianism, Haurvatat was the Amesha Spenta associated with water (''c ...

) * ''Zariz''/''

Zarich In Persian mythology, Zarik (or Zarich) is a Daeva in the service of Ahriman. Etymology Etymology of Zarik/Zarich comes from Avestan "zairi-gaona" - green/yellow. Description Oft-depicted in female form, Zarik is the daeva personification of agi ...

'' who poisons plants opposing ''Amurdad'' of "immortality" (Av. Zauri versus

Ameretat () is the Avestan language name of the Zoroastrianism, Zoroastrian divinity/divine concept of immortality. Amerdad is the Amesha Spenta of long life on earth and perpetuality in the hereafter. The word ' is grammatically feminine and the divini ...

) These oppositions differ from those found in scripture, where the moral principles (that each Amesha Spenta represents) are opposed by immoral principles. This is not however a complete breach, for while in the Gathas ''asha''—the principle—is the diametric opposite of the abstract ''druj'', in Zoroastrian tradition, it is ''Ardawahisht'', the

that is the hypostasis of ''asha'', that is opposed to by Indar, who freezes the minds of creatures from practicing "righteousness" (''asha''). ''Greater Bundahishn'' 34.27 adds two more arch-demons, which are not however in opposition to Amesha Spentas: * ''Xeshm'' of "wrath" opposing ''Srosh'' of "obedience" (Av.

Aeshma Aeshma (Avestan: 𐬀𐬉𐬴𐬨𐬀 ''aēṣ̌ma''; Old Avestan: 𐬀𐬉𐬱𐬆𐬨𐬀 ''aēšəma'') is the Younger Avestan name of Zoroastrianism's demon of "wrath". As a hypostatic entity, Aeshma is variously interpreted as "wrath", "rage" ...

versus

Sraosha Sraosha ( or ; ), is the Avestan name of the Zoroastrian '' yazata'' of "Conscience" and "Observance", which is also the literal meaning of his name. In the Middle Persian commentaries of the 9th-12th centuries, the divinity appears as '', S(a) ...

) * ''Gannag menog'', the "foul death" or "stinking spirit", opposing ''Hormazd'' (''Gannag menog'' is unknown in the Avesta, and Hormazd is

). Also mirroring Ormuzd's act of creation, i.e., the realization of the Amesha Spentas by his "thought", is Ahriman's creation of the ''dew''s through his "demonic essence". Other texts describe this event as being to Ahriman's detriment for his act of "creation" is actually an act of destruction. Ahriman is the very epitome (and hypostasis) of destruction, and hence he did not "create" the demons, he realized them through destruction, and they then became that destruction. The consequence is that, as Ahriman and the ''dew''s can only destruct, they will ultimately destroy themselves (''Denkard'' 3). As the medieval texts also do for Ahriman, they question whether the ''dew''s exist at all. Since "existence" is the domain of Ormuzd, and Ahriman and his ''dew''s are anti-existence, it followed that Ahriman and his ''dew''s could not possibly exist. One interpretation of the ''Denkard'' proposes that the ''dew''s were perceived to be non-existent physically (that is, they were considered non-ontological) but present psychologically.. (see also: Ahriman: In Zoroastrian tradition) For a different set of texts, such as the ''Shayest ne shayest'' and the ''Book of Arda Wiraz'', Ahriman and the ''dew''s were utterly real, and are described as being potentially catastrophic. In such less philosophical representations, the ''dew''s are hordes of devils with a range of individual powers ranging from the almost benign to the most malign. They collectively rush out at nightfall to do their worst, which includes every possible form of corruption at every possible level of human existence. Their destructiveness is evident not only in disease, pain, and grief but also in cosmic events such as falling stars and climatic events such as droughts, cyclones and earthquakes. They are sometimes described as having anthropomorphic properties such as faces and feet, or given animal-like properties such as claws and body hair. They may produce semen, and may even mate with humans as in the tale of ''Jam'' and ''Jamag'' (''Bundahishn'' 14B.1). But with the exception of the ''Book of Arda Wiraz'', the ''dew''s are not generally described as a force to be feared. With fundamental optimism,.. the texts describe how the ''dew''s may be kept in check, ranging from cursing them to the active participation in life through good thoughts, words and deeds. Many of the medieval texts develop ideas already expressed in the ''

'' ("given against the demons"). A fire (cf. '' Adur'') is an effective weapon against the ''dew''s, and keeping a hearth fire burning is a means to protect the home. The ''dew''s are "particularly attracted by the organic productions of human beings, from excretion, reproduction, sex, and death". Prayer and other recitations of the liturgy, in particular the recitation of ''

'' 1 (so ''Sad-dar'' 57), is effective in keeping the demons at bay.. Demons are attracted by chatter at mealtimes and when silence is broken a demon takes the place of the angel at one's side.. According to ''Shayest-ne-Shayest'' 9.8, eating at all after nightfall is not advisable since the night is the time of demons. In the 9th century ''

rivayat The ''Rivayats'' (also spelled as ''Revayats'') are a series of exchanges between the Parsi, Zoroastrian community in India and their co-religionists in Early modern period, early modern Iran. They have been ascribed the same importance of the Tal ...

''s (65.14), the demons are described as issuing out at night to wreak mayhem, but forced back into the underworld by the divine glory (''khvarenah'') at sunrise. The Zoroastrianism of the medieval texts is unambiguous with respect to which force is the superior. Evil cannot create and is hence has a lower priority in the cosmic order (''asha''). According to ''Denkard'' 5.24.21a, the protection of the ''yazata''s is ultimately greater than the power of the demons. The ''dew''s are agents ("procurers—''vashikano''—of success") of

Ahriman Angra Mainyu (; ) is the Avestan name of Zoroastrianism's hypostasis of the "destructive/evil spirit" and the main adversary in Zoroastrianism either of the Spenta Mainyu, the "holy/creative spirits/mentality", or directly of Ahura Mazda, th ...

(Avestan ''Angra Mainyu'') in the contests that will continue until the end of time, at which time the fiend will become invisible and (God's) creatures will become pure. (''Dadestan-i Denig'' 59) But until the final renovation of the world, mankind "stands between the ''yazad''s and the ''dēw''s; the 'yazad''sare immortal in essence and inseparable from their bodies (''mēnōg''), men are immortal in essence but separable from their bodies (moving from ''gētīg'' to ''mēnōg'' condition), but ''dēw''s are mortal in essence and inseparable from their bodies, which may be destroyed." In addition to the six arch-demons (see above) that oppose the six Amesha Spentas, numerous other figures appear in scripture and tradition. According to ''Bundahishn'' XXVII.12, the six arch-demons have cooperators (''hamkars''), arranged in a hierarchy (not further specified) similar to that of the ''yazata''s. These are "''dew''s ..created by the sins that creatures commit." (''Bundahishn'' XXVII.51) * ''Akatash'' of perversion (e.g., ''Gbd'' XXVII) * ''Anashtih'' "strife" (e.g., ''Chidag Andarz i Poryotkeshan'' 38) * ''Anast'' that utters falsehood (e.g., ''Gbd'' XXVII) * ''Apaush'' and ''Spenjaghra'' who cause drought (e.g., ''Gbd'' XXVII) * ''Araska'' of vengeance (e.g., ''Gbd'' XXVII) * ''Ashmogh'' of apostasy (Avestan ''Ashemaogha'') * ''Az'' of avarice and greed (e.g., ''Gbd'' XXVII) * ''Buht'' of idolatry (e.g., ''Gbd'' XXVII) * ''Bushasp'' of sloth (Avestan ''

Bushyasta Bushyasta (Avesta, ''būšyāsta'', ''būšiiąstā'') is the Zoroastrianism, Zoroastrian demon (''daeva'') of sloth. Her stock epithet is "the long-handed". In scripture as well as in later tradition, Bushyasta (Middle Persian: ''Bushasp'') is ...

'') (e.g., ''Gbd'' XXVII) * ''Diwzhat'' (Av. ''Daebaaman''), the deceiver, the hypocrite * ''Eshm'' of wrath (Avestan ''

'') (e.g., ''Gbd'' XXVII) * ''Freptar'' of distraction and deception (e.g., ''Gbd'' XXVII) * ''Jeh'' the whore (Avestan ''

Jahi Jahi is the Avestan language name of Zoroastrianism's demoness of "lasciviousness." As a hypostatic entity, Jahi is variously interpreted as "hussy," "rake," " libertine," "courtesan" and "one who leads a licentious life." Her standard epithet ...

'') (e.g., ''Gbd'' III) * ''Mitokht'' (also ''Mithaokhta'') of scepticism and falsehood (e.g. ''Gbd'' XXVII) * ''Nang'' of disgrace and dishonor (e.g., ''Dadestan-i Denig'' 53) * ''Nas'' or ''Nasa'' (Avestan ''Nasu'') of pollution and contamination (e.g., ''GBd'' XXVII) * ''Niyaz'' causes want (e.g., ''Gbd'' XXVII) * ''Pinih'' of stinginess and who hoards but does not enjoy its hoard (e.g., ''Gbd'' XXVII) * ''Rashk'' (Avestan ''Areshko'') "envy" (e.g. ''Denkard'' 9.30.4) * ''Sij'' who causes destruction (e.g., ''Gbd'' XXVII) * ''Sitoj'' that denies doctrine (e.g., ''Dadestan-i Denig'' 53) * ''Spazg'' of slander (e.g., ''Gbd'' XXVII) * ''Spuzgar'', the negligent (e.g., ''Andarz-i Khosru-i-Kavatan'') * ''Taromaiti'' of scorn (e.g., ''Gbd'' XXVII) * ''Varun'' of unnatural lust (e.g., ''Gbd'' XXVII) Other entities include: * ''Aghash'' of the evil eye (e.g., ''Gbd'' XXVII) * ''Astwihad'' of death (Avestan ''Asto-widhatu'' or ''Asto-vidatu'') (e.g., ''Gbd'' XXVII) * '' zi-/Az-ahak'' (Avestan ''

Azi Dahaka use both this parameter and , birth_date to display the person's date of birth, date of death, and age at death) --> , death_place = , death_cause = , body_discovered = , resting_place = , resting_place_coordinates ...

''), a serpent-like monster king. (e.g., '' J'' 4) * ''Cheshma'' who opposes the clouds and causes earthquakes and whirlwinds (e.g., ''Gbd'' XXVII) * ''Kunda'', the steed that carries sorcerers (e.g., ''Gbd'' XXVII) * ''Uta'' who brings about sickness through food and water (e.g., ''Gbd'' XXVII) * ''Vizaresh'' that fights for the souls of the dead (e.g., ''Gbd'' XXVII) The most destructive of these are ''Astiwihad'', the demon of death that casts the noose of mortality around men's necks at birth, and ''Az'', who is most capable of destroying the "innate wisdom" of man. ''Az'' is thus the cause of heresy and blinds the righteous man from being able to discern the truth and falsehood.

In the Shahnameh

Shahnameh - The Div Akvan throws Rustam into the sea

A list of ten demons is provided in the ''

Shahnameh The ''Shahnameh'' (, ), also transliterated ''Shahnama'', is a long epic poem written by the Persian literature, Persian poet Ferdowsi between and 1010 CE and is the national epic of Greater Iran. Consisting of some 50,000 distichs or couple ...

'':. Besides the afore-mentioned ''Az'' "greed", ''Kashm'' "wrath" (Avestan ''

''), ''Nang'' "dishonor", ''Niaz'' "want", and ''Rashk'' "envy", the epic poem includes ''Kin'' "vengeance", ''Nammam'' "tell-tale", ''Do-ruy'' "two-face", ''napak-din'' "heresy", and (not explicitly named) ungratefulness. Some of the entities that in the Middle Persian texts are demons, are in the ''Shahnameh'' attributes of demons, for instance, ''varuna'' "backwards" or "inside out", reflecting that they tend to do the opposite of what they are asked to do. Although

Ferdowsi Abu'l-Qâsem Ferdowsi Tusi (also Firdawsi, ; 940 – 1019/1025) was a Persians, Persian poet and the author of ''Shahnameh'' ("Book of Kings"), which is one of the world's longest epic poetry, epic poems created by a single poet, and the gre ...

generally portrays ''div''s as being distinct from humans, the poet also uses the word to denote "evil people". One of the more popular stories from the ''Shahnameh'' is that of ''

Rostam use both this parameter and , birth_date to display the person's date of birth, date of death, and age at death) --> , death_place = Kabulistan , death_cause = With the conspiracy of his half-brother Shaghad, he fell into a we ...

and the Dīv-e Sapīd'', the "white demon" of

Mazandaran Mazandaran Province (; ) is one of the 31 provinces of Iran. Its capital is the city of Sari, Iran, Sari. Located along the southern coast of the Caspian Sea and in the adjacent Central Alborz mountain range and Hyrcanian forests, it is border ...

, who blinds Rostam's men (who are then cured with the blood of the demon's gall).

References

Bibliography

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External links

{{Commons category, position=left, Daevas,
Daevas Ancient Iranian deities Demons in the ancient Near East Persian legendary creatures Azerbaijani mythology Kurdish mythology Shahnameh characters Supernatural legends