''Fagus sylvatica'', the European beech or common beech, is a large, graceful
deciduous
In the fields of horticulture and botany, the term deciduous () means "falling off at maturity" and "tending to fall off", in reference to trees and shrubs that seasonally shed Leaf, leaves, usually in the autumn; to the shedding of petals, aft ...
tree in the
beech
Beech (genus ''Fagus'') is a genus of deciduous trees in the family Fagaceae, native to subtropical (accessory forest element) and temperate (as dominant element of Mesophyte, mesophytic forests) Eurasia and North America. There are 14 accepted ...
family with smooth silvery-gray bark, large leaf area, and a short trunk with low branches.
Description

''Fagus sylvatica'' is a large
tree
In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem, or trunk, usually supporting branches and leaves. In some usages, the definition of a tree may be narrower, e.g., including only woody plants with secondary growth, only ...
, capable of reaching heights of up to tall and trunk diameter, though more typically tall and up to trunk diameter. A 10-year-old sapling will stand about tall. Undisturbed, the European beech has a lifespan of 300 years; one tree at the Valle Cervara site was more than 500 years old—the oldest known in the northern hemisphere. In cultivated forest stands trees are normally harvested at 80–120 years of age. 30 years are needed to attain full maturity (as compared to 40 for
American beech). Like most trees, its form depends on the location: in forest areas, ''F. sylvatica'' grows to over , with branches being high up on the trunk. In open locations, it will become much shorter (typically ) and more massive.
The leaves are alternate, simple, and entire or with a slightly
crenate margin, long and broad, with 6–7 veins on each side of the leaf (as opposed to 7–10 veins in ''
F. orientalis''). When crenate, there is one point at each vein tip, never any points between the veins. The
bud
In botany, a bud is an undeveloped or Plant embryogenesis, embryonic Shoot (botany), shoot and normally occurs in the axil of a leaf or at the tip of a Plant stem, stem. Once formed, a bud may remain for some time in a dormancy, dormant conditi ...
s are long and slender, long and thick, but thicker, up to , where the buds include flower buds.
The leaves of beech are often not
abscissed (dropped) in the autumn and instead remain on the tree until the spring. This process is called
marcescence
Marcescence is the withering and persistence (botany), persistence of plant organs that normally are shed, and is a term most commonly applied to plant leaves. The underlying physiological mechanism is that trees transfer water and sap from the ...
. This particularly occurs when trees are
saplings or when plants are clipped as a hedge (making beech hedges attractive screens, even in winter), but it also often continues to occur on the lower branches when the tree is mature.
Small quantities of seeds may be produced around 10 years of age, but not a heavy crop until the tree is at least 30 years old. ''F. sylvatica'' male flowers are borne in the small
catkin
A catkin or ament is a slim, cylindrical flower cluster (a spike), with inconspicuous or no petals, usually wind- pollinated ( anemophilous) but sometimes insect-pollinated (as in '' Salix''). It contains many, usually unisexual flowers, arra ...
s which are a hallmark of the
Fagales
The Fagales are an order of flowering plants in the rosid group of dicotyledons, including some of the best-known trees. Well-known members of Fagales include: beeches, chestnuts, oaks, walnut, pecan, hickory, birches, alders, hazels, hornb ...
order (beeches, chestnuts, oaks, walnuts, hickories, birches, and hornbeams). The female flowers produce beechnuts, small triangular
nuts long and wide at the base; there are two nuts in each cupule, maturing in the autumn 5–6 months after pollination. Flower and seed production is particularly abundant in years following a hot, sunny and dry summer, though rarely for two years in a row.
Distribution and habitat

The European beech is the most abundant hardwood species in Austrian, German and Swiss forests. The native range extends from the north, in
Sweden
Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Nordic countries, Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and north, and Finland to the east. At , Sweden is the largest Nordic count ...
,
Denmark
Denmark is a Nordic countries, Nordic country in Northern Europe. It is the metropole and most populous constituent of the Kingdom of Denmark,, . also known as the Danish Realm, a constitutionally unitary state that includes the Autonomous a ...
, Norway, Germany, Poland, Switzerland, Bulgaria, western parts of Ukraine, Romania, through Europe to France, southern England, Spain (on the
Cantabrian,
Iberian and
Central mountain ranges), and east to northwest Turkey,
[ where it exhibits an interspecific ]cline
Cline may refer to:
Science
* Cline (biology), a measurable gradient in a single trait in a species across its geographical range
* Cline (hydrology), a fluid layer with a property that varies
* Cline (mathematics) or generalised circle, a ci ...
with the oriental beech (''Fagus orientalis
''Fagus orientalis'', commonly known as the Oriental beech, is a deciduous tree in the beech family Fagaceae. It is native to Eurasia, in Eastern Europe and Western Asia.
Description
''Fagus orientalis'' is a large tree, capable of reaching he ...
''), which replaces it further east. In the Balkans, it shows some hybridisation with oriental beech; these hybrid trees are named ''Fagus × taurica
''Fagus'' × ''taurica'', the Crimean beech, is a deciduous tree in the beech genus ''Fagus''.
Taxonomy
The Balkan beech or Moesian beech (''Fagus moesiaca''), is considered to be the same species. It has been thought to be a hybrid between ' ...
'' Popl. 'Fagus moesiaca'' (Domin, Maly) Czecz. In the southern part of its range around the Mediterranean, and Sicily
Sicily (Italian language, Italian and ), officially the Sicilian Region (), is an island in the central Mediterranean Sea, south of the Italian Peninsula in continental Europe and is one of the 20 regions of Italy, regions of Italy. With 4. ...
, it grows only in mountain forests, at altitude.
Although often regarded as native in southern England, recent evidence suggests that ''F. sylvatica'' did not arrive in England until about 4000 BC, or 2,000 years subsequent to the English Channel forming following the ice ages; it could have been an early introduction by Stone Age
The Stone Age was a broad prehistory, prehistoric period during which Rock (geology), stone was widely used to make stone tools with an edge, a point, or a percussion surface. The period lasted for roughly 3.4 million years and ended b ...
humans, who used the nuts for food. The beech is classified as a native in the south of England and as a non-native in the north where it is often removed from 'native' woods. Localised pollen records have been recorded in the North of England from the Iron Age by Sir Harry Godwin
Sir Harry Godwin, FRS (9 May 1901 – 12 August 1985) was a prominent English botanist
Botany, also called plant science, is the branch of natural science and biology studying plants, especially Plant anatomy, their anatomy, Plant taxon ...
. Changing climatic conditions may put beech populations in southern England under increased stress and while it may not be possible to maintain the current levels of beech in some sites it is thought that conditions for beech in north-west England will remain favourable or even improve. It is often planted in Britain. Similarly, the nature of Norwegian beech populations is subject to debate. If native, they would represent the northern range of the species. However, molecular genetic analyses support the hypothesis that these populations represent intentional introduction from Denmark before and during the Viking Age
The Viking Age (about ) was the period during the Middle Ages when Norsemen known as Vikings undertook large-scale raiding, colonising, conquest, and trading throughout Europe and reached North America. The Viking Age applies not only to their ...
. However, the beech in Vestfold and at Seim north of Bergen in Norway is now spreading naturally and regarded as native
Native may refer to:
People
* '' Jus sanguinis'', nationality by blood
* '' Jus soli'', nationality by location of birth
* Indigenous peoples, peoples with a set of specific rights based on their historical ties to a particular territory
** Nat ...
.
Though not demanding of its soil type, the European beech has several significant requirements: a humid atmosphere (precipitation well distributed throughout the year and frequent fogs) and well-drained soil (being intolerant of excessive stagnant water). It prefers moderately fertile ground, calcified or lightly acidic, therefore it is found more often on the side of a hill than at the bottom of clayey basin. It tolerates rigorous winter cold, but is sensitive to spring frost. In Norway's oceanic climate planted trees grow well north to Bodø Municipality
Bodø (; , ) is a List of municipalities of Norway, municipality in Nordland Counties of Norway, county, Norway. It is part of the Districts of Norway, traditional region of Salten. The administrative centre of the municipality is the Bodø (town ...
, and produce seedlings and can spread naturally in Trondheim. In Sweden, beech trees do not grow as far north as in Norway.
A beech forest is very dark and few species of plant are able to survive there, where the sun barely reaches the ground. Young beeches prefer some shade and may grow poorly in full sunlight. In a clear-cut forest a European beech will germinate and then die of excessive dryness. Under oak
An oak is a hardwood tree or shrub in the genus ''Quercus'' of the beech family. They have spirally arranged leaves, often with lobed edges, and a nut called an acorn, borne within a cup. The genus is widely distributed in the Northern Hemisp ...
s with sparse leaf cover it will quickly surpass them in height and, due to the beech's dense foliage, the oaks will die from lack of sunlight.
Ecology
The root system is shallow, even superficial, with large roots spreading out in all directions. European beech forms ectomycorrhiza
An ectomycorrhiza (from Greek ἐκτός ', "outside", μύκης ', "fungus", and ῥίζα ', "root"; ectomycorrhizas or ectomycorrhizae, abbreviated EcM) is a form of symbiotic relationship that occurs between a fungal symbiont, or mycobio ...
s with a range of fungi including many '' Russula'' species, as well as '' Laccaria amethystina'', and with the species '' Ramaria flavosaponaria''. '' Tomentella'' Pat. species and '' Cenococcum geophilum'' have been found in Danish and Spanish beech forests. These fungi are important in enhancing uptake of water and nutrients from the soil.[
In the woodlands of southern Britain, beech is dominant over oak and elm south of a line from about north Suffolk across to Cardigan. Oak are the dominant forest trees north of this line. One of the most beautiful European beech forests called ]Sonian Forest
The Sonian Forest or Sonian Wood (, ; , ) is a forest at the south-eastern edge of Brussels, Belgium. It is connected to the Bois de la Cambre, Bois de la Cambre/Ter Kamerenbos, an urban public park which enters the city up to from the Pentag ...
(''Forêt de Soignes/Zoniënwoud'') is found in the southeast of Brussels, Belgium. Beech is a dominant tree species in France and constitutes about 10% of French forests. The largest virgin forest
An old-growth forest or primary forest is a forest that has developed over a long period of time without Disturbance (ecology), disturbance. Due to this, old-growth forests exhibit unique ecological features. The Food and Agriculture Organizati ...
s made of beech trees are Uholka-Shyrokyi Luh () in Ukraine
Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the List of European countries by area, second-largest country in Europe after Russia, which Russia–Ukraine border, borders it to the east and northeast. Ukraine also borders Belarus to the nor ...
and Izvoarele Nerei ( in one forest body) in Semenic-Cheile Carașului National Park, Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukraine to the north and east, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Bulgaria to the south, Moldova to ...
. These habitats are the home of Europe's largest predators, (the brown bear, the grey wolf and the lynx). Many trees are older than 350 years in Izvoarele Nerei and even 500 years in Uholka-Shyrokyi Luh.
Spring leaf budding by the European beech is triggered by a combination of day length and temperature. Bud break each year is from the middle of April to the beginning of May, often with remarkable precision (within a few days). It is more precise in the north of its range than the south, and at than at sea level
Mean sea level (MSL, often shortened to sea level) is an mean, average surface level of one or more among Earth's coastal Body of water, bodies of water from which heights such as elevation may be measured. The global MSL is a type of vertical ...
.
The European beech invests significantly in summer and autumn for the following spring. Conditions in summer, particularly good rainfall, determine the number of leaves included in the buds. In autumn, the tree builds the reserves that will sustain it into spring. Given good conditions, a bud can produce a shoot with ten or more leaves. The terminal bud emits a hormonal substance in the spring that halts the development of additional buds. This tendency, though very strong at the beginning of their existence, becomes weaker in older trees.
It is only after the budding that root growth of the year begins. The first roots to appear are very thin (with a diameter of less than 0.5 mm). Later, after a wave of above ground growth, thicker roots grow in a steady fashion.
Diseases and pathogens
''Fagus sylvatica'' and other beeches are prone to false heartwood ('red heart') a condition where drought, nutrient deficient soil, branch breakage, pathogen infestation or other stressor induces formation of protection wood. False heartwood often manifests in the areas of the trunk associated with symplastless branches. As branch symplast dies, the trunk wood becomes depleted of nitrogen-containing molecules essential for life; this increases risk of catastrophic trunk failure.
As the European beech exhibits deterministic leaf and shoot development and has a larger leaf area than other European hardwood trees, it is relatively more sensitive to drought and may respond to a dry summer with pre-senescent leafdrop.
'' Biscogniauxia nummularia'' (beech tarcrust) is an ascomycete
Ascomycota is a phylum of the kingdom Fungi that, together with the Basidiomycota, forms the subkingdom Dikarya. Its members are commonly known as the sac fungi or ascomycetes. It is the largest phylum of Fungi, with over 64,000 species. The def ...
primary pathogen of beech trees, causing strip-canker and wood rot. It can be found at all times of year and is not edible.
Cultivation
European beech is a very popular ornamental tree in parks and large gardens in temperate
In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (approximately 23.5° to 66.5° N/S of the Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ran ...
regions of the world. In North America, they are preferred for this purpose over the native ''F. grandifolia'', which despite its tolerance of warmer climates, is slower growing, taking an average of 10 years longer to attain maturity. The town of Brookline, Massachusetts
Brookline () is an affluent town in Norfolk County, Massachusetts, United States, and part of the Greater Boston, Boston metropolitan area. An exclave of Norfolk County, Brookline borders six of Boston's neighborhoods: Brighton, Boston, Brighton ...
has one of the largest, if not the largest, grove of European beech trees in the United States. The public park, called 'The Longwood Mall', was planted sometime before 1850 qualifying it as the oldest stand of European beeches in the United States.
It is frequently kept clipped to make attractive hedges.
Since the early 19th century there have been numerous cultivar
A cultivar is a kind of Horticulture, cultivated plant that people have selected for desired phenotypic trait, traits and which retains those traits when Plant propagation, propagated. Methods used to propagate cultivars include division, root a ...
s of European beech made by horticultural selection, often repeatedly; they include:
*copper beech or purple beech (''Fagus sylvatica purpurea'') – a mutation of the European beech which was first noted in 1690 in the "Possenwald" forest near the town of Sondershausen in Thuringia, Germany. It is assumed that about 99% of all copper beeches in the world are descendants of this copper beech. Its leaves are purple, in many selections turning deep spinach green by mid-summer. In the United States Charles Sprague Sargent noted the earliest appearance in a nurseryman's catalogue in 1820, but in 1859 "the finest copper beech in America... more than fifty feet high" was noted in the grounds of Thomas Ash, Esq., Throggs Neck, New York; it must have been more than forty years old at the time.
*fern-leaf beech (''Fagus sylvatica'' Heterophylla Group) – leaves deeply serrated to thread-like
* dwarf beech (''Fagus sylvatica'' Tortuosa Group) – distinctive twisted trunk and branches
* weeping beech (''Fagus sylvatica'' Pendula Group) – branches pendulous
*Dawyck beech (''Fagus sylvatica'' 'Dawyck') – fastigiate (columnar) growth – occurs in green, gold and purple forms; named after Dawyck Botanic Garden in the Scottish Borders
*golden beech (''Fagus sylvatica'' 'Zlatia') – leaves golden in spring
Cultivars
The following cultivars
A cultivar is a kind of cultivated plant that people have selected for desired traits and which retains those traits when propagated. Methods used to propagate cultivars include division, root and stem cuttings, offsets, grafting, tissue cult ...
have gained the Royal Horticultural Society
The Royal Horticultural Society (RHS), founded in 1804 as the Horticultural Society of London, is the UK's leading gardening charity.
The RHS promotes horticulture through its five gardens at Wisley (Surrey), Hyde Hall (Essex), Harlow Carr ...
's Award of Garden Merit
The Award of Garden Merit (AGM) is a long-established award for plants by the British Royal Horticultural Society (RHS). It is based on assessment of the plants' performance under UK growing conditions.
It includes the full range of cultivated p ...
:-
*''F. sylvatica''
*'Dawyck'
*'Dawyck Gold'
*'Dawyck Purple'
*'Pendula' (weeping beech)
*'Riversii'
*''F. sylvatica'' var.
In botanical nomenclature, variety (abbreviated var.; in ) is a taxonomic rank below that of species and subspecies, but above that of Form (botany), form. As such, it gets a three-part Infraspecific name (botany), infraspecific name. It is s ...
''heterophylla'' 'Aspleniifolia'
Uses
The nuts are eaten by humans and animals. Slightly toxic to humans if eaten in large quantities due to the tannin
Tannins (or tannoids) are a class of astringent, polyphenolic biomolecules that bind to and Precipitation (chemistry), precipitate proteins and various other organic compounds including amino acids and alkaloids. The term ''tannin'' is widel ...
s and alkaloid
Alkaloids are a broad class of natural product, naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. Some synthetic compounds of similar structure may also be termed alkaloids.
Alkaloids are produced by a large varie ...
s they contain, the nuts were nonetheless pressed to obtain an oil in 19th-century England that was used for cooking and in lamps. They were also ground to make flour, which could be eaten after the tannins were leached out by soaking. Additionally,
''Primary Product AM 01'', a smoke flavouring, is produced from ''Fagus sylvatica.''
Timber
The wood
Wood is a structural tissue/material found as xylem in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. It is an organic materiala natural composite of cellulosic fibers that are strong in tension and embedded in a matrix of lignin t ...
of the European beech is used in the manufacture of numerous objects and implements. Its fine and short grain makes it an easy wood to work with, easy to soak, dye, varnish and glue. Steaming makes the wood even easier to machine. It has an excellent finish and is resistant to compression and splitting, and it is stiff when flexed. Milling is sometimes difficult due to cracking. The density of the wood is per cubic metre. It is particularly well suited for minor carpentry, particularly furniture. From chairs to parquetry
Parquet (; French for "a small compartment") is a geometric mosaic of wood pieces used for decorative effect in flooring.
Parquet patterns are often entirely geometrical and angular—squares, triangles, Lozenge (shape), lozenges—but may co ...
(flooring) and staircases, the European beech can do almost anything other than heavy structural support, so long as it is not left outdoors. Its hardness make it ideal for making wooden mallet
A mallet is a tool used for imparting force on another object, often made of rubber or sometimes wood, that is smaller than a maul or beetle, and usually has a relatively large head.
General overview
The term is descriptive of the ...
s and workbench
A workbench is a sturdy table at which manual work is done. They range from simple flat surfaces to very complex designs that may be considered tools in themselves. Workbenches vary in size from tiny jewellers benches to the huge benches used by ...
tops. The wood rots easily if it is not protected by a tar based on a distillate of its own bark (as used in railway sleepers). It is better for paper pulp
Pulp is a fibrous lignocellulosic material prepared by chemically, semi-chemically, or mechanically isolating the cellulosic fibers of wood, fiber crops, waste paper, or rags. Mixed with water and other chemicals or plant-based additives, pul ...
than many other broadleaved trees though is only sometimes used for this, the high cellulose content can also be spun into modal, which is used as a textile akin to cotton. The code for its use in Europe is (from ''FA''gus ''SY''lvatica). Common beech is also considered one of the best firewood
Firewood is any wooden material that is gathered and used for fuel. Generally, firewood is not heavily processed, and is in some sort of firelog, recognizable log or branch form, compared to other forms of wood fuel like pellet fuel, pellets. ...
s for fireplaces.
Gallery
File:Hyde park tree.jpg, The famous Upside-down Tree, Hyde Park, London
Hyde Park is a , historic Listed building#Heritage protection, Grade I-listed urban park in Westminster, Greater London. A Royal Parks of London, Royal Park, it is the largest of the parks and green spaces that form a chain from Kensington P ...
, an example of ''F. sylvatica'' 'pendula'
File:Weeping-beech-leaves.jpg, Leaves of a weeping cultivar of European beech
File:March dyke sourlie.JPG, Beech planted on a march dyke (boundary hedge) in Scotland
File:Leaves of a "Fagus sylvatica Asplenifolia" tree in summer - Belfast (Botanic Gardens) 2015-08-21.JPG, Leaves of var. ''heterophylla'' 'Aspleniifolia', Belfast Botanic Garden
File:Brussels Zonienwoud.jpg, Old stand of beech prepared for regeneration (note the young undergrowth) in the Sonian Forest
The Sonian Forest or Sonian Wood (, ; , ) is a forest at the south-eastern edge of Brussels, Belgium. It is connected to the Bois de la Cambre, Bois de la Cambre/Ter Kamerenbos, an urban public park which enters the city up to from the Pentag ...
File:FagusSylvaticaBark.jpg, European beech bark
File:Fagus sylvatica MHNT.BOT.2010.6.81.jpg, ''Fagus sylvatica'' wood – MHNT
File:Fagus sylvatica MHNT.BOT.2004.0.312.jpg, ''Fagus sylvatica'' – MHNT
File:Purple-Fagus-sylvatica-leaves.jpg, Purple cultivar of Fagus sylvatica with developing beech-nuts
File:Entzia - Brotes de haya 01.jpg, Seedlings
File:Mølleparken (maj 02).jpg, Copper beech (spring)
File:Copperbeechmystic.jpg, A dark purple example of a copper beech in Mystic, Connecticut
Mystic is a village and census-designated place (CDP) in Groton and Stonington, Connecticut, United States.
Mystic was a significant Connecticut seaport with more than 600 ships built over 135 years starting in 1784. Mystic Seaport, located in ...
File:BoisDeMadame.jpg, ''Fagus sylvatica''
File:Beuk (Fagus sylvatica), zwellende bladknop. 24-04-2022 (d.j.b.).jpg, Swollen leaf bud
File:Fagus sylvatica 1 (cropped).JPG, Inflorescence
File:Vrucht van een beuk (Fagus sylvatica) 21-07-2023 (d.j.b.).jpg, Immature fruit of a beech
File:Zaaddozen_van_een_beuk_(Fagus_sylvatica)_13-09-2024_(d.j.b.).jpg, Half-opened seed pods of a beech (''Fagus sylvatica'')
References
External links
Beech Tree Collection
– Photographs by Louis K. Meisel, NY
Images, location details, and measurements of remarkable beeches
.
''Fagus sylvatica''
() – distribution map, genetic conservation units and related resources. European Forest Genetic Resources Programme
European Forest Genetic Resources Programme (EUFORGEN) is an international network that promotes the conservation and sustainable use of forest genetic resources in Europe as an integral part of sustainable forest management. It was established ...
(EUFORGEN).
{{Authority control
Edible nuts and seeds
sylvatica
Garden plants of Europe
Ornamental trees
Plants described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Trees of Europe
Trees of humid continental climate
Trees of mild maritime climate
Trees of temperate climates