''Comes'' (plural ''comites''), translated as count, was a Roman title, generally linked to a comitatus or comital office. The word ''comes'' originally meant "companion" or "follower", deriving from "''com-''" ("with") and "''ire''" ("go"). The special lasting meaning derives from the position of a follower within a ''comitatus'', which was a retinue, or group of followers, such as those of magnates. In some instances these were sufficiently large and/or formal to justify specific denomination, such as a "''

cohors amicorum {{Italics title ''Cohors amicorum'' is a Latin term literally meaning "cohort of friends". The notion cohort is to be taken not in the strict, military sense (primarily the constitutive unit of a Roman legion; circa battalion), but indicated a fai ...

''". The word ''comes'' is the origin of the much later terms for

counts Count (feminine: countess) is a historical title of nobility in certain European countries, varying in relative status, generally of middling rank in the hierarchy of nobility. Pine, L. G. ''Titles: How the King Became His Majesty''. New York: ...

within the medieval nobility, and

counties A county () is a geographic region of a country used for administrative or other purposesL. Brookes (ed.) '' Chambers Dictionary''. Edinburgh: Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd, 2005. in some nations. The term is derived from the Old French denoti ...

as their territorial jurisdictions.

Ancient Roman religion

''Comes'' was a common

epithet An epithet (, ), also a byname, is a descriptive term (word or phrase) commonly accompanying or occurring in place of the name of a real or fictitious person, place, or thing. It is usually literally descriptive, as in Alfred the Great, Suleima ...

title A title is one or more words used before or after a person's name, in certain contexts. It may signify their generation, official position, military rank, professional or academic qualification, or nobility. In some languages, titles may be ins ...

that was added to the name of a

hero A hero (feminine: heroine) is a real person or fictional character who, in the face of danger, combats adversity through feats of ingenuity, courage, or Physical strength, strength. The original hero type of classical epics did such thin ...

or god in order to denote relation with another god. The coinage of Roman Emperor Constantine I declared him "''comes''" to

Sol Invictus Sol Invictus (, "Invincible Sun" or "Unconquered Sun") was the official Solar deity, sun god of the late Roman Empire and a later version of the god Sol (Roman mythology), Sol. The emperor Aurelian revived his cult in 274 AD and promoted Sol Inv ...

("Unconquered Sun") ''qua'' god.

Imperial Roman curial titles and offices styled ''comites''

Historically more significant, "''comes''" became a secular title granted to trusted officials of the Imperial ''Curia'' ("Court"), present or former, and others as sign of Imperial confidence. It developed into a formal, dignitary title, derived from the " Companions" of

Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon (; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), most commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greece, ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia (ancient kingdom), Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip ...

and rather equivalent to the

Hellenistic In classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Greek history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC, which was followed by the ascendancy of the R ...

title of "'' philos basilikos''" or the paladin title of a

knight A knight is a person granted an honorary title of a knighthood by a head of state (including the pope) or representative for service to the monarch, the church, or the country, especially in a military capacity. The concept of a knighthood ...

of the

Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire, also known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512, was a polity in Central and Western Europe, usually headed by the Holy Roman Emperor. It developed in the Early Middle Ages, and lasted for a millennium ...

and a Papal Palatinus. Thus the title was retained when the titulary was appointed, often promoted, to an office away from court, frequently in the field or a provincial administration. Subsequently, it was thought logical to connect the title to specific offices that demanded an incumbent official of high dignity, and even to include it as part of the official title. As the Imperial Roman ''Curia'' increased in number and assimilated all political power, the Roman Emperors instituted a casual practice of appointing faithful servants to offices. This had been done elsewhere, e. g. regarding the Prefect of the Praetorian Guard and the '' amici principis''. As Imperial administration expanded, however, new offices became necessary and decentralization demanded modifications. The result was the institution of the rank of "''comes''". The "''comites''", often translated as "counts", though they were neither feudal nor hereditary, became principal officials of the later

Roman Empire The Roman Empire ruled the Mediterranean and much of Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. The Roman people, Romans conquered most of this during the Roman Republic, Republic, and it was ruled by emperors following Octavian's assumption of ...

. They held offices of all kinds from the army to the civil service, while retaining their direct access to the Emperor. Emperor Constantine I finalized them as the governmental echelon of "''comites provinciarum''" ("counts of the provinces"); the ''comites'' of the new echelon were assigned alongside the ''vicarii'' in the civil dioceses of the latter so that the ''comites'' became permanent fixtures of Imperial government. The ''comites'' were fully enumerated as early as the beginning of the AD 5th century in the ''

Notitia Dignitatum The (Latin for 'List of all dignities and administrations both civil and military') is a document of the Late Roman Empire that details the administrative organization of the Western and the Eastern Roman Empire. It is unique as one of very ...

'', but as offices were later added, it is not historically exhaustive. The following sections describe examples of the kinds of ''comites''.

At court or in the Imperial domains

Several of the major departments of the Imperial ''Curia'' ('Court') and household had a principal official who was styled "''comes''" and assisted by an "'' officium''" ('staff') very similar to that of a

Roman governor A Roman governor was an official either elected or appointed to be the chief administrator of Roman law throughout one or more of the many Roman province, provinces constituting the Roman Empire. The generic term in Roman legal language was ''re ...

. They included: *''

Comes dispositonum ''Comes'' (plural ''comites''), translated as count, was a Roman title, generally linked to a comitatus or comital office. The word ''comes'' originally meant "companion" or "follower", deriving from "''com-''" ("with") and "''ire''" ("go"). Th ...

'': a deputy to the very powerful '' magister officiorum'' (master of offices) responsible for organizing the Imperial calendar and preparing the correspondence for distribution to the proper offices for transcription. *'' Comes domesticorum'': a '' vir illustris'' who was principal of the '' domestici'', a corps of bodyguards of the Emperor who were stationed in the Imperial Palace. There were two of these comital commanders, the ''comes domesticorum equitum'' for the equestrian knights and the ''comes domesticorum peditum'' for the foot soldiers. *'' Comes privatae largitionis'': the custodian of the privy purse, who answered and was subordinate to the ''comes rerum privatarum'' (see next title). *'' Comes rerum privatarum'': a powerful Imperial official responsible for the private estates and holdings of the

Emperor The word ''emperor'' (from , via ) can mean the male ruler of an empire. ''Empress'', the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), mother/grandmother (empress dowager/grand empress dowager), or a woman who rules ...

and his family ('' res privata''). He maintained the properties and collected the rents, of which most were deposited in the '' Aerarium'', i. e., the treasury of the public funds of the State, and some in the ''Fiscus'', i. e., the treasury of privy funds of the Emperor that the '' comes privatae largitionis'' administered. *''

Comes sacrarum largitionum The ''comes sacrarum largitionum'' ("Count of the Sacred Largesses"; in , ''kómes tōn theíon thesaurōn'') was one of the senior fiscal officials of the late Roman Empire and the early Byzantine Empire. Although it is first attested in 342/3 ...

'': a ''vir illustris'' who was custodian of the ''sacrae largitiones'' ('sacred Largesses') of the

and manager of the Imperial finances. He controlled all of the mints, each managed by a '' procurator''; was the principal of numerous officials, including more ''procuratores'', ''rationales'', and ''praepositi'', who collected senatorial taxes, custom duties, and some land taxes; was responsible for the yields of the mines; provided budgets for the civil service and armies; supplied all uniforms; and was competent for the minor offices of: **'' Comes auri'': the official responsible for gold. **'' Comes sacrae vestis'': the master of the wardrobe of the Emperor. **The 3 ''comites largitionum'': the regional financial administrators of

Italy Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe, Western Europe. It consists of Italian Peninsula, a peninsula that extends into the Mediterranean Sea, with the Alps on its northern land b ...

Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent after Asia. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 20% of Earth's land area and 6% of its total surfac ...

, and Illyricum. **'' Comes commerciorum'' for Illyricum. **''Comes metallorum per Illyricum'': the official responsible for that region's gold mines. Exceptionally, a gubernatorial position was styled ''comes''. For example, the '' comes Orientis'', actually one of the '' vicarii'', was an official who controlled the large and strategically important Imperial

Diocese of the East The Diocese of the East, also called the Diocese of Oriens, (; ) was a diocese of the later Roman Empire, incorporating the provinces of the western Middle East, between the Mediterranean Sea and Mesopotamia. During late Antiquity, it was one of t ...

by supervising the governors of this collection of provinces, but he was in turn supervised by the '' praefectus praetorio Orientis''. Further, the principal officials of some less important governmental departments who were under the authority of otherwise styled, high ranking, territorial officials could be titled ''comes'', e. g. under the '' praefectus urbi'' of

Rome Rome (Italian language, Italian and , ) is the capital city and most populated (municipality) of Italy. It is also the administrative centre of the Lazio Regions of Italy, region and of the Metropolitan City of Rome. A special named with 2, ...

, himself a '' vir illustris'', was a ''comes formarum'', ''comes riparum et alvei Tiberis et Cloacarum'' ('count of the coast of the Tiber and the Canalisation'), and ''comes portus'' ('count of the port'). The title '' comes consistorianus'' or ''comes consistorialis'' indicated specially appointed members to the '' consistorium'', the council of the Roman emperor's closest advisors.

''Comes rei militaris''

The held martial appointments, and commanded . He ranked superior to a but inferior to the or ; he functioned as the superior of a series of military stations, each commanded by a ("border commander") and/or as a unit commander, e. g., of tribunes of cohorts, of (auxiliary equivalents), of , and in the Eastern Empire even of legions. The ''

'' of the early-5th century AD enumerates six such offices, being of the dignity of , in the Western Empire: , , , , and ; as well as two in the Eastern Empire: and .''Notitia Dignitatum''
/ref> *: official responsible for the defense of

Roman Africa Roman Africa or Roman North Africa is the culture of Roman Africans that developed from 146 BC, when the Roman Republic defeated Carthage and the Punic Wars ended, with subsequent institution of Roman Empire, Roman Imperial government, through th ...

. *: official responsible for the defense of part of Gallia. *: official responsible for the defense of the other part of Gallia. *: official responsible for the defense of

Britannia The image of Britannia () is the national personification of United Kingdom, Britain as a helmeted female warrior holding a trident and shield. An image first used by the Romans in classical antiquity, the Latin was the name variously appli ...

. This office presumably expired , when the last Roman troops left that province. *: official responsible for the defense of the Saxon shore of

. *: official responsible for the defense of

Hispania Hispania was the Ancient Rome, Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula. Under the Roman Republic, Hispania was divided into two Roman province, provinces: Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior. During the Principate, Hispania Ulterior was divide ...

. As the number of increased, that dignity became devalued. This resulted in the introduction of classes of , denominated and ranked the first, second, and third "".

Comites dominorum nostrorum

The ''comites dominorum nostrorum'' (plural of ''comes dominorum nostrorum''; ) were a mounted Imperial bodyguard during the

tetrarchy The Tetrarchy was the system instituted by Roman emperor Diocletian in 293 AD to govern the ancient Roman Empire by dividing it between two emperors, the ''augusti'', and their junior colleagues and designated successors, the ''caesares''. I ...

of Emperor Diocletian in circa 300 AD.

Medieval adaptations of comital offices

Gothic ''Comites''

The

Goths The Goths were a Germanic people who played a major role in the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the emergence of medieval Europe. They were first reported by Graeco-Roman authors in the 3rd century AD, living north of the Danube in what is ...

that ruled

Spain Spain, or the Kingdom of Spain, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe with territories in North Africa. Featuring the Punta de Tarifa, southernmost point of continental Europe, it is the largest country in Southern Eur ...

and

followed the Roman tradition of granting the title of "''comes''" to the various principals of the departments of their royal households, including but not limited to the: *''Comes Cubiculariorum'': Count in charge of the chamberlains (L. cubicularii). *''Comes Scanciorum'': the Count who commanded the cup bearers. *''Comes Stabulorum'': the Count who commanded the equerries and stables. *''Comes Notariorum'': the Count who commanded the chancery, i. e., the writing office. *''Comes Thesaurorum'': the Count who commanded the officials of the treasury.

Frankish ''Gaugraf''

The Frankish kings of the

Merovingian dynasty The Merovingian dynasty () was the ruling family of the Franks from around the middle of the 5th century until Pepin the Short in 751. They first appear as "Kings of the Franks" in the Roman army of northern Gaul. By 509 they had united all the ...

retained much of Roman administration, including the office and title of "''comes''", the original meaning of which they preserved, i. e., a companion of the king and a royal servant of high dignity. Under the early Frankish kings some ''comites'' did not have definite functions: they were merely attached to the person of the King and executed his orders. Others filled the highest offices, e. g. the ''Comes Palatii'' and ''Comes Stabuli'' (from which the contemporary title of "

constable A constable is a person holding a particular office, most commonly in law enforcement. The office of constable can vary significantly in different jurisdictions. ''Constable'' is commonly the rank of an officer within a police service. Other peo ...

" derives). Yet other ''comites'' served as regional officials. For administrative purposes, the Merovingian kingdoms were still divided into small Roman districts denominated "'' pagi''" (hence the French "''pays''"), or similarly sized new creations "''Gaue''". These were smaller than the old Roman '' civitates'' ("cities", or polities) which became the basis of the new medieval bishoprics. In Carolingian times, the governor of a ''pagus'' was a ''Comes'', corresponding to the German ''

Graf (; feminine: ) is a historical title of the German nobility and later also of the Russian nobility, usually translated as "count". Considered to be intermediate among noble ranks, the title is often treated as equivalent to the British title ...

''. The King appointed the ''comites'' to serve at his pleasure. The modern German-derived term sometimes for a count who governed a whole gau is "''Gaugraf''", and a gau containing several counties is sometimes called a "''Grossgau''". The essential competences of the ''comes'' were comprehensive in his ''pagus'': martial, judicial, and executive; and in documents he is often described as the "''agens publicus''" ("public agent") of the King or "''judex publicus/fiscalis''" ("royal judge"). He was at once public prosecutor and judge, and was responsible for the execution of the sentences as well. As the delegate of the executive power, he had the right to exercise the "''bannis regis''" ("royal ban"), which gave him the right to command his military in the name of the King and to act as necessary to preserve the peace. As the King's representative, he exercised the royal right of protection ("''mundium regis''") of churches, widows, orphans, and the like. He enjoyed a triple "'' wergeld''", but had no definite salary, being remunerated by receipt of specific revenues, which system contained the germs of discord, on account of the confusion of his public and private obligations. According to philologists, the

Anglo-Saxon The Anglo-Saxons, in some contexts simply called Saxons or the English, were a Cultural identity, cultural group who spoke Old English and inhabited much of what is now England and south-eastern Scotland in the Early Middle Ages. They traced t ...

word "''gerefa''", denoting "illustrious chief", however, is not connected to the German "''Graf''", which originally meant "servant"; compare the etymologies of the words "knight" and "valet". It is the more curious that the "''gerefa''" should end as a subservient ''reeve'' while the "''graf''" became a noble count.

Feudalism

Trento-Cathedral of Saint Vigilius-southern entrance-iacobvs comes

In the feudal tradition,

Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...

was, especially in law, the official language, and therefore the rendering in Latin was equal in importance to the vernacular title. Thus, "''comes''" has been used as the Latin equivalent, or part of it, of all titles of comital office, whether containing "

count Count (feminine: countess) is a historical title of nobility in certain European countries, varying in relative status, generally of middling rank in the hierarchy of nobility. Pine, L. G. ''Titles: How the King Became His Majesty''. New York: ...

" or some other word etymologically derived from "''comes''" or "''

graf (; feminine: ) is a historical title of the German nobility and later also of the Russian nobility, usually translated as "count". Considered to be intermediate among noble ranks, the title is often treated as equivalent to the British title ...

''". Similarly, it is part of the rendering, not always exclusive, of derived inferior titles containing such words, notably "'' vicecomes''" for "viscount" and "'' burgicomes''" and "''burgravio''" for "burgrave".

References

* {{Authority control Ancient Roman titles Court titles Military ranks of ancient Rome Roman Empire Economy of ancient Rome