The forms of Chinese furniture evolved along three distinct lineages which date back to 1000 BC: ''

frame and panel Frame and panel construction, also called rail and stile, is a woodworking technique often used in the making of coffered doors, ceilings, wainscoting, and decorative panels for cabinets, furniture Furniture refers to objects intended to s ...

'', ''yoke and rack'' (based on post-and-rail seen in architecture) and ''bamboo'' construction techniques. Chinese home

furniture Furniture refers to objects intended to support various human activities such as seating (e.g., Stool (seat), stools, chairs, and sofas), eating (table (furniture), tables), storing items, working, and sleeping (e.g., beds and hammocks). Furnitur ...

evolved independently of Western furniture into many similar forms, including chairs, tables, stools, cupboards, cabinets, beds and sofas. Until about the 10th century CE, the Chinese sat on mats or low platforms using low tables, but then gradually moved to using high tables with chairs.Grove Chinese furniture is mostly in plain, polished wood, but from at least the

Song dynasty The Song dynasty ( ) was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Fiv ...

, the most luxurious pieces often used

lacquer Lacquer is a type of hard and usually shiny coating or finish applied to materials such as wood or metal. It is most often made from resin extracted from trees and waxes and has been in use since antiquity. Asian lacquerware, which may be c ...

to cover the whole or parts of the visible areas. All the various sub-techniques of Chinese lacquerware can be found on furniture, and became increasingly affordable down the social scale—thus widely used—from about the

Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...

onwards.

Carved lacquer Carved lacquer or Qidiao () is a distinctive Chinese form of decorated lacquerware. While lacquer has been used in China for at least 3,000 years, the technique of carving into very thick coatings of it appears to have been developed in the 12 ...

furniture was, at first, only affordable by the imperial family or the extremely rich, but by the 19th century, it was merely very expensive, and mostly found in smaller pieces or as decorated areas on larger ones. It was especially popular on screens, which were common in China. Lacquer inlaid with

mother of pearl Nacre ( , ), also known as mother-of-pearl, is an organicinorganic composite material produced by some molluscs as an inner shell layer. It is also the material of which pearls are composed. It is strong, resilient, and iridescent. Nacre is ...

was a technique used especially on furniture. Chinese furniture is usually light, whenever possible, anticipating Europe by several centuries in this respect. Practical fittings in metal such as hinges, lock plates, drawer handles and protective plates at edges or feet are used and often given considerable emphasis, but compared to classic European fine furniture, purely decorative metal mounts were rare. From the

Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...

, furniture made for export, mostly to Europe, became a distinct style, generally made in rather different shapes to suit the destination markets and highly decorated in lacquer and other techniques. Early traditional Chinese furniture for sitting or lying on was not often covered with soft material. Not until very late historical periods, were cushions, textiles, and other forms of upholstery incorporated into Chinese furniture, impacted by Western culture.

Openwork In art history, architecture, and related fields, openwork or open-work is any decorative technique that creates holes, piercings, or gaps through a solid material such as metal, wood, stone, pottery, cloth, leather, or ivory. Such techniques ha ...

in carved wood or other techniques is very typical for practical purposes such as chair-backs, and also for decoration. The Ming period is regarded as the "golden age" of Chinese furniture, though very few examples of earlier pieces survive. Ming styles have largely set the style for furniture in traditional Chinese style in subsequent periods, though as in other areas of

Chinese art Chinese art is visual art that originated in or is practiced in China, Greater China or by Chinese artists. Art created by Chinese residing outside of China can also be considered a part of Chinese art when it is based on or draws on Chine ...

, the 18th and 19th centuries saw increasing prosperity used for sometimes excessively elaborated pieces, as wider groups in society were able to imitate court styles.

Cultural context

What is now considered the Chinese aesthetic had its origins in

China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...

as far back as 1500–1000 BC. The furniture present in some of the artwork from that early period shows woven mats on elevated floors, sometimes accompanied by arm rests, providing seating accompanied by low tables. In this early period both unadorned and intricately engraved and painted pieces were already developing. High chairs, usually single ones, had existed as status symbols, effectively

throne A throne is the seat of state of a potentate or dignitary, especially the seat occupied by a sovereign (or viceroy A viceroy () is an official who reigns over a polity in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory ...

s, since at least the

Eastern Zhou The Eastern Zhou (256 BCE) is a period in Chinese history comprising the latter two-thirds of the Zhou dynasty. The period follows the Western Zhou era and is named due to the Zhou royal court relocating the capital eastward from Fenghao ...

period (771–256 BCE), but were not used with tables at the same level. The use of screens has been recorded since the Shang and Zhou dynasties, which shows that society is in civilization and society is in progress. It plays a role in dividing space and beautifying the environment. It has privacy, comfort and security. The

Han dynasty The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...

still sat on the ground, and indoor life was centered on beds and couch. The function of beds was not only to sleep, but also to have meals, conversations and other activities. A large number of portrait bricks and stones of the Han dynasty reflected such scenes. The bed is slightly different from the couch. The bed is higher than the couch and wider than the couch. Moreover, in this era, curtains were used, and curtains set on beds also played an important role, indicating that society was in the progress of civilization, avoiding mosquitoes in summer and keeping out the wind and cold in winter. At the same time, they played a role of beautification and were also a sign of identity and wealth.

Buddhism Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...

, entering China around AD 200, brought with it the idea of (the Buddha) sitting upon a raised platform instead of simply mats. The platform was adopted as an honorific seat for special guests and dignitaries or officials. Longer versions were then used for reclining as well, which eventually evolved into the bed and daybed. Taller versions evolved into higher tables as well. The folding stool also proliferated similarly, after it was adapted from designs developed by nomadic tribes to the North and West, who used them for both their convenience and light weight in many applications such as mounting horses. Later, woven hourglass-shaped stools evolved; a design still in use today throughout China. Some of the styles now widely regarded as Chinese began appearing more prominently in the

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...

(618–907 AD). It is here that evidence of early versions of the round and yoke back chairs are found, generally used by the elite. By the next two dynasties (the Northern and Southern

Song A song is a musical composition performed by the human voice. The voice often carries the melody (a series of distinct and fixed pitches) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs have a structure, such as the common ABA form, and are usu ...

) the use of varying types of furniture, including chairs, benches, and stools was common throughout Chinese society. Two particular developments were recessed legs and waisted tables. Newer and more complex designs were generally limited to official and higher class use. In the Song dynasty, high furniture for sitting with feet hanging occupied an absolutely dominant position. Sitting with feet hanging has become a fixed posture, and the daily life in Chinese history has been fundamentally changed, which depends on the sitting posture. Furniture in the Song dynasty shows the characteristics of straightness and beauty in its overall style. Its decoration inherits the style of the Five Dynasties and tends to be simple and elegant. It does not make large-scale carving decoration, but only takes local decorations to make the finishing point. At the beginning of the

, the style of Ming style furniture was continued. Chinese traditional furniture technology developed to the Yongzheng and Qianlong periods of the Qing dynasty, forming a Qing style school different from Ming style furniture. The Qing dynasty experienced the Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong periods, and there was a luxurious and decadent trend of blindly pursuing richness, luxury, and red tape in social culture at that time. There is a strong contrast with Ming style furniture, so it is called "Qing style" furniture in the history of furniture in China. Qing style furniture is made of thick and heavy materials, and its variety and decoration pursue innovation. The decoration of Qing style furniture seeks more, fullness, wealth and splendor. A variety of materials are used together, and a variety of processes are combined. More modern Chinese furniture developed its distinguishing characteristics. The use of thick lacquer finish and detailed engraving and painted decoration as well as pragmatic design elements would continue to flourish. Significant foreign design influence would not be felt until increased contact with the West began in the 19th century, due to efforts on the part of the ruling elite to limit trade. In recent decades, there is a trend of re-designing Chinese furniture in a more modern perspective. The exceptional quality and innovation of the furniture associated with what has already become known as ‘''New Chinese Design''’ will undoubtedly set in motion a significant reappraisal of contemporary Chinese design in general. The first thing to understand about ''New Chinese Design'' is that it is foremost a design reform movement. Ideologically guided, it has been responsible for an extraordinary renaissance within Chinese furniture design, the first green shoots of which began to emerge in isolation with the designs of Samuel Chan in Britain during the late 1980s. The process of integrating traditional culture and contemporary style in furniture was initiated by designers such as Zhu Xiaojie, Chi Wing Lo, Chen Renyi, Shan Fan, Shi Jianmin and Song Tao, but many others have since joined the movement, notably Lv Yongzhong, Lydon Neri, Rossana Hum Jiang Qiong’er, Jeff Shi Dayu, Wen Hao, Shen Baohong, Studio MVW, Chen Darui, Zhong Song, Chen Yanfei and Jerry Chen. During the

Ming The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of China ruled by the Han people, t ...

and

Qing The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...

dynasties previous bans on imports were lifted, allowing for larger quantities and varieties of woods to flood in from other parts of Asia. The use of denser wood led to much finer work, including more elaborate joinery. A Ming Imperial table entirely covered in carved lacquer, now in London, is one of the finest survivals of the period.

Ming dynasty furniture

Chinese furniture flourished in Ming and Qing dynasties; as the result, the Ming-style furniture and the Qing-style furniture become the representative traditional Chinese furniture people often see today.

Suzhou Suzhou is a major prefecture-level city in southern Jiangsu province, China. As part of the Yangtze Delta megalopolis, it is a major economic center and focal point of trade and commerce. Founded in 514 BC, Suzhou rapidly grew in size by the ...

, an area in

Jiangsu Province Jiangsu is a coastal province in East China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with its capital in Nanjing. Jiangsu is the third smallest, but the fifth most populous, with a population of 84. ...

, is distinguished by the fine production techniques of Ming-style furniture. Thus, Ming-style furniture is also known as Suzhou-style furniture. The

Wishbone chair The Wishbone Chair, also known as the CH24 Chair or Y Chair is a chair designed by Hans Wegner in 1949 for Carl Hansen & Søn. The chair features a bentwood armrest and a paper cord rope seat in a woven envelope pattern. The chair is named after ...

by Danish designer

Hans Wegner Hans Jørgensen Wegner (April 2, 1914 – January 26, 2007) was a Danish furniture designer. His work, along with a concerted effort from several of his manufacturers, contributed to the international popularity of mid-century Danish design. His ...

was inspired by Ming-style chairs.

Shape, style and culture

Ming dynasty furniture is distinguished by its simplicity of shape. It does not focus on the rich and complicated decorative patterns but the elegance of style and the beauty of lines. Ming furniture stresses the smoothness of lines: it looks unobtrusive, blends curves and straight lines, and creates a sense of balance and harmony. This feature is particularly prominent in the Quanyi (圈椅 zh, p=Quānyǐ) Circular Chairs, an example of the combination of curves and lines. Moreover, Ming furniture is noted by its ergonomic design. It attaches importance to the rationality of scale and curvature, which makes people feel comfortable while sitting on a hard wooden chair. For example, the backrest of Ming furniture is in the shape of "S" or "C". This special shape conforms to the characteristics of the human spine curve, allowing people to sit on their backs to rest and relieve fatigue. The round crescent armrest of the chair has a natural slope from high to low, allowing people to rest their shoulders and arms on the arc-shaped armrests. Overall, the function and aesthetics of Ming furniture are emphasized by its unique shape and refined structure. Culture has a deep impact on traditional Chinese throughout history. Taking Ming dynasty furniture as an example, artistic symbolism reflects the philosophy of ancient Chinese culture. Both the pleasing aesthetics and the symbolic meaning of Ming dynasty furniture contribute to advocating the Chinese style towards contemporary home furnishing. As a visualization of Confucian philosophy, the form and auspicious decorative patterns of Ming dynasty furniture symbolize the expression of Neutralization thought, the thought of harmony, the importance of going into the world, which encourages the user to be more practical and more responsible. Altogether, design of Ming dynasty furniture reflects people's pursuit of wealth, peace, harmony and rights.

Decoration

Ming furniture pursues small and refined decoration, which results in a moderate and artistic decoration style. The main decoration methods in Ming furniture include

inlay Inlay covers a range of techniques in sculpture and the decorative arts for inserting pieces of contrasting, often colored materials into depressions in a base object to form Ornament (art), ornament or pictures that normally are flush with the ...

carving Carving is the act of using tools to shape something from a material by scraping away portions of that material. The technique can be applied to any material that is solid enough to hold a form even when pieces have been removed from it, and y ...

, and

lacquerware Lacquerware are objects decoratively covered with lacquer. Lacquerware includes small or large containers, tableware, a variety of small objects carried by people, and larger objects such as furniture and even coffins painted with lacquer. Before ...

. Various materials are used in inlay, including enamel, bamboo, animal's horn or teeth,

jade Jade is an umbrella term for two different types of decorative rocks used for jewelry or Ornament (art), ornaments. Jade is often referred to by either of two different silicate mineral names: nephrite (a silicate of calcium and magnesium in t ...

, stone, copper, etc. However, Ming furniture does not aim to have all the luxuries in one piece, instead highlighting the beauty of wood through the raw materials. Partial or small area

relief Relief is a sculpture, sculptural method in which the sculpted pieces remain attached to a solid background of the same material. The term ''wikt:relief, relief'' is from the Latin verb , to raise (). To create a sculpture in relief is to give ...

and

openwork In art history, architecture, and related fields, openwork or open-work is any decorative technique that creates holes, piercings, or gaps through a solid material such as metal, wood, stone, pottery, cloth, leather, or ivory. Such techniques ha ...

became the primary means of decoration in many Ming furniture examples;

swastika The swastika (卐 or 卍, ) is a symbol used in various Eurasian religions and cultures, as well as a few Indigenous peoples of Africa, African and Indigenous peoples of the Americas, American cultures. In the Western world, it is widely rec ...

, cloud, and

Ruyi Rúyì (如意 "as desired") may refer to: * Ruyi Bridge, a bridge in Taizhou, Zhejiang, China *Ruyi (scepter), ceremonial Buddhist scepter or a talisman *Ruyi Island, off the coast of Haikou, Hainan * Ruyi Lake, near Chengde, Hebei * Ruyi, Shaosh ...

are the common patterns for this type of decoration. Additionally, the application of metal accessories is another major feature of Ming furniture decoration. Copper, the most commonly used metal in Ming furniture, is usually decorated on the corners, feet, and handles of the furniture. These metal fittings not only serve aesthetic purposes, but simultaneously enhance wear resistance.

Material

Ming furniture is made of a wide range of materials, including wood, stone, and other auxiliary materials. The choice of wood is usually hardwood, such as huanghuali (黄花梨 zh, p=Huáng huālí), red sandalwood,

rosewood Rosewood is any of a number of richly hued hardwoods, often brownish with darker veining, but found in other colours. It is hard, tough, strong, and dense. True rosewoods come from trees of the genus '' Dalbergia'', but other woods are often ca ...

, chicken-wing wood (鸡翅木 zh, p=Jīchì mù), beech, and

Cassia siamea Cassia typically refers to cassia bark, the spice made from the bark of East Asian evergreen trees. Cassia may also refer to: Plants Cinnamon trees * ''Cinnamomum cassia'' (, ''ròuguì''), the cassia or Chinese cinnamon, found in southern China ...

. Among those hardwoods, huanghuali was especially popular in the Ming dynasty because of its texture, color, and odor. Among all the stone materials, marble,

agate Agate ( ) is a banded variety of chalcedony. Agate stones are characterized by alternating bands of different colored chalcedony and sometimes include macroscopic quartz. They are common in nature and can be found globally in a large number of d ...

, and Nanyang stone are the common materials for inlay. Rattan, rope, and bamboo are often used as auxiliary materials in Ming furniture as well.

Four categories

Chinese furniture traditionally consisted of four distinct categories, all formed by the mid Qing dynasty, but each with its own unique characteristics. *

Beijing Beijing, Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Peking, is the capital city of China. With more than 22 million residents, it is the world's List of national capitals by population, most populous national capital city as well as ...

category (京式家具 zh, p=Jīng shì jiājù): characterized by its simple build, directly developed from Ming dynasty furnitures. *

Guangzhou Guangzhou, Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Canton or Kwangchow, is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Guangdong Provinces of China, province in South China, southern China. Located on the Pearl River about nor ...

category (广式家具 zh, p=Guǎng shì jiājù): incorporating western influence, fully formed in the 19th century but dating back to at least 17th century. Characterized by the adoptation of

Baroque The Baroque ( , , ) is a Western Style (visual arts), style of Baroque architecture, architecture, Baroque music, music, Baroque dance, dance, Baroque painting, painting, Baroque sculpture, sculpture, poetry, and other arts that flourished from ...

and

Rococo Rococo, less commonly Roccoco ( , ; or ), also known as Late Baroque, is an exceptionally ornamental and dramatic style of architecture, art and decoration which combines asymmetry, scrolling curves, gilding, white and pastel colours, sculpte ...

artistic styles, use of native timbers in the Lingnan region, and the decorative mounting of marble and the shells of shellfish. *

Shanghai Shanghai, Shanghainese: , Standard Chinese pronunciation: is a direct-administered municipality and the most populous urban area in China. The city is located on the Chinese shoreline on the southern estuary of the Yangtze River, with the ...

category (海式家具 zh, p=Hǎi shì jiājù): characterized by its decorative carving and carved lacquer. *

category (苏式家具 zh, p=Sū shì jiājù): Suzhou area is the main birthplace of Ming-style furniture in China, so Su-style furniture is a typical representative of Ming-style furniture.

Material

Classic Chinese furniture is typically made of a class of hardwoods, known collectively as "rosewood" (紅木, literally "red wood")(紅木 zh, p=Hóngmù). These woods are denser than water, fine grained, and high in oils and resins. These properties make them dimensionally stable, hardwearing, rot and insect resistant, and when new, highly fragrant. The density and toughness of the wood also allows furniture to be built without the use of glue and nail, but rather constructed from joinery and doweling alone. According to the Chinese industry standards the woods are grouped into eight classes: }, , ''

Pterocarpus ''Pterocarpus'' is a pantropical tree genus in the Fabaceae family. It belongs to the subfamily Faboideae, and was recently assigned to the informal monophyletic ''Pterocarpus'' clade within the Dalbergieae. Most species of ''Pterocarpus'' yi ...

'', , Woods typically from '' Pterocarpus cambodianus'', '' P. dalbergioides'', '' P. erinaceus'', '' P. indicus'', '' P. macarocarpus'', '' P. pedatus'', and '' P. marsupium''. This wood is known commercially in the West as "padauk". , - , Zitan wood , , 紫檀木 zh, p=Zǐtán mù, , ''

Dalbergia ''Dalbergia'' is a large genus of small to medium-size trees, shrubs and lianas in the pea family, Fabaceae, subfamily Faboideae. It was recently assigned to the informal monophyletic ''Dalbergia'' clade (or tribe): the Dalbergieae. The ...

'', ''

'' , , Wood from ''

Dalbergia nigra ''Dalbergia nigra'', commonly known as the Bahia rosewood, jacarandá-da-Bahia, Brazilian rosewood, Rio rosewood, jacarandá-do-brasil, pianowood, caviúna, graúna, jacarandá-una or obuina is a species of legume in the family Fabaceae. Descri ...

'', a burgundy-black wood that oxidizes into a purple-black colour. Highly valued. Other sources say that Zitan is not the same as ''Dalbergia nigra'', which is commonly known as Brazilian rosewood, but that Zitan is ''

Pterocarpus santalinus ''Pterocarpus santalinus'', with the common names red sanders, red saunders, Yerra Chandanam, Chenchandanam, red sandalwood, Rakta Chandana, and rakto chandon, is a species of ''Pterocarpus'' endemism, endemic to the southern Eastern Ghats moun ...

'', commonly known as purple sandalwood, which is somewhat of an inaccurate name. , - , Hong suanzhi wood , , 紅酸枝木 zh, p=Hóng suān zhī mù, , rowspan=3, ''Dalbergia'', , Reddish coloured woods that have a sour/acrid smell when freshly cut. The woods are typically from '' Dalbergia bariensis'', '' D. cearensis'', '' D. cochinchinensis'', '' D. frulescensvar'', '' D. granadillo'', '' D. oliveri'', and '' D. retusa'' , - , Hei suanzhi wood , , 黑酸枝木 zh, p=Hēi suān zhī mù, , Dark coloured woods that have a sour/acrid smell when freshly cut. The woods are typically from '' D. cultrata'', '' D. fusca'', '' D. latifolia'', '' D. louvelii'', '' D. melanoxylon'', ''D. nigra'', '' D. spruceana'', and '' D. stevensonii'' , - , Xiangzhi wood , , 香枝木 zh, p=Xiāngzhī mù), , The wood from '' Dalbergia odorifera'' and known commonly by the name "Huanghua li" (黄花梨, literally ''yellow flowered pear'') or "Jiangxiang huangtan" (降香黄檀, literally ''fragrant yellow hardwood''). This is one of the most valued and traditionally used hardwoods for Chinese furniture before its overharvesting from Chinese domestic sources. , - , Wu/Yinchen wood , , 烏木 / 陰沉木 zh, p=Wūmù/ yīnchén mù , , rowspan=2, ''

Diospyros ''Diospyros'' is a genus of over 700 species of deciduous and evergreen trees and shrubs. The majority are native to the tropics, with only a few species extending into temperate regions. Individual species valued for their hard, heavy, dark timb ...

'' , , Typically refers to woods from ''

Diospyros crassiflora ''Diospyros crassiflora'', commonly known as Gaboon ebony, African ebony, Cameroon ebony, Nigeria ebony, West African ebony, and Benin ebony is a species of lowland-rainforest tree in the family Ebenaceae that is endemic to Western Africa. It is ...

'', ''

Diospyros ebenum Ceylon ebony or ''Diospyros ebenum ( Kaluwara) (''Tamil: கருங்காலி Karungaali), is a species of tree in the genus Diospyros and the family Ebenaceae. The tree produces valuable black wood. Description This middle-height eve ...

'', '' Diospyros pilosanthera'', and '' D. poncei'', which are known as

ebony Ebony is a dense black/brown hardwood, coming from several species in the genus '' Diospyros'', which also includes the persimmon tree. A few ''Diospyros'' species, such as macassar and mun ebony, are dense enough to sink in water. Ebony is fin ...

in the West. Name is sometimes mistakenly applied to ''Dalbergia nigra''. , - , Striped Ebony wood , , 條紋烏木 zh, p=Tiáowén wūmù , , Woods from trees of genus ''Diospyros'' with vivid dark and light striations. Principally ''

Diospyros blancoi ''Diospyros blancoi'', ( synonym ''Diospyros discolor''), commonly known as velvet apple, velvet persimmon, kamagong, or mabolo tree, is a tree of the genus '' Diospyros'' of ebony trees and persimmons. It produces edible fruit with a fine, ve ...

'', ''

Diospyros celebica ''Diospyros celebica'' (commonly known as black ebony or Makassar ebony) is a species of flowering tree in the family Ebenaceae that is endemic to the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia. The common name Makassar ebony originates from the main sea ...

and

Diospyros melanoxylon ''Diospyros melanoxylon'', the Coromandel ebony or East Indian ebony, is a species of flowering tree in the family Ebenaceae native to India and Sri Lanka; it has a hard, dry bark. Its common name derives from Coromandel, the coast of southe ...

''. , - , Phoenix tail or Chicken wing wood , , 雞翅木 zh, p=Jīchì mù , , ''

Millettia ''Millettia'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Fabaceae. It consists of about 169 species of shrubs, lianas or trees, which are native to tropical and subtropical regions of sub-Saharan Africa, the Indian subcontinent, Indochina, sout ...

'' and other genera, , Woods which have a finely patterned, high contrast grain that is similar to the feathers of certain birds, such as chickens and partridges. The wood is taken typically from ''

Millettia laurentii ''Millettia'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Fabaceae. It consists of about 169 species of shrubs, lianas or trees, which are native to tropical and subtropical regions of sub-Saharan Africa, the Indian subcontinent, Indochina, sout ...

'' (非洲崖豆木), ''

Millettia leucantha ''Millettia'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Fabaceae. It consists of about 169 species of shrubs, lianas or trees, which are native to tropical and subtropical regions of sub-Saharan Africa, the Indian subcontinent, Indochina, sout ...

'' (白花崖豆木), '' Ormosia hosiei''(相思木), and either '' Senna siamea'' or ''

Mesua ferrea ''Mesua ferrea'', the Ceylon ironwood, or cobra saffron, is a species in the family Calophyllaceae native to the Indomalayan realm. This slow-growing tree is named after the heaviness and hardness of its timber. It is widely cultivated as an o ...

'' (鐵力木) but also from a wide variety of species including, ''

Terminalia tomentosa ''Terminalia elliptica'' (sin. ''Terminalia tormentosa'') is a species of ''Terminalia'' native to southern and southeast Asia in India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam.Sal and Saaj Deforestation in West Nepal"Te ...

'', ''

Diplotropis purpurea ''Diplotropis'' is a genus of trees (family Fabaceae Fabaceae () or Leguminosae,Hymenolobium excelsum'', '' Andira inermis'', and '' Sterculia oblonga''. , - Furniture and carving made from these wood species are typically referred to, in the market, as "Hongmu Furniture" (紅木家具, literally "rosewood furniture")(紅木家具 zh, p=Hóngmù jiājù). Due to

overlogging Overlogging is a form of overexploitation caused by legal or illegal logging activities that lead to unsustainable or irrecoverable deforestation and permanent habitat destruction for forest wildlife. Causes The use of poor logging practices ...

for the said furniture, most of the species are either

threatened A threatened species is any species (including animals, plants and fungi) which is vulnerable to extinction in the near future. Species that are threatened are sometimes characterised by the population dynamics measure of ''critical depensatio ...

endangered An endangered species is a species that is very likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as habitat loss, poaching, inv ...

. Chinese furniture using precious wood also has property attributes, which is appreciation. This is due to the use of precious hardwood and high labour costs, durability, and it can be passed on to future generations as property. Hardwoods like Huali Wood (花梨木 zh, p=Huālí mù) and Suanzhi (酸枝 zh, p=Suān zhī) are the most representative, and the price of the raw material spiked over the past decades. Taking Huali Wood as an example, one of the most famous and expensive precious wood, the price skyrockets due to the scarcity of old trees. The growth cycle of Hualimu tree is extremely long making it unimaginably difficult to become timber—800 years. By the end of the Ming dynasty, all of Hualimu tree was felled in China. The price of Hualimu is 8-12 million RMB (approximately1.5-2.4 million CAD) per ton in 2004. In 2020, the price increased to 18 million RMB (approximately 3.4 million CAD) per ton and is expected to keep increasing. In China, some manufacturers grasped this opportunity by replicating the traditional design from precious hardwood with the help of machinery making the old design more accessible to certain consumers. There is a niche market for high-end collectors to appreciate traditional Chinese furniture not only for the timeless design but also the opportunity to invest or to show social status.

Construction

Construction of traditional wooden Chinese furniture is based primarily of solid wood pieces connected solely using

woodworking joints Joinery is a part of woodworking that involves joining pieces of wood, engineered lumber, or synthetic substitutes (such as laminate), to produce more complex items. Some woodworking joints employ mechanical fasteners, bindings, or adhesives, ...

, and rarely using glue or metallic nails. The reason was that the nails and glues used did not stand up well to the vastly fluctuating temperatures and humid weather conditions in most of Central and Southeast Asia. Further, the oily and resinous woods used in Chinese furniture generally do not glue well, even when pre-cleaned with modern industrial solvents. Platform construction is based on box designs and uses frame-and-panel construction in simple form during earlier periods evolving into more and more modified forms in later periods. While earlier pieces show full frame-and-panel construction techniques, different parts of the construction were modified through the centuries to produce diverse looking pieces which still share the same basic construction. First the panel, originally complete, is subject to cut-out sections, followed by further reduction to what may appear to be simply decorative brackets. Further refinement of the same pattern lead the shape of the decorative brackets being incorporated into the shape of the surrounding frame and simultaneously the two mitered vertical pieces comprising a corner become one solid piece. Pieces start to have small cross-pieces attached to the bottom of the feet rather than a frame that is equal on all sides and finally, with evolution of the complex woodworking joints that allow it, the cross-pieces are removed entirely, leaving a modern table with 3-way mitered corners. Unlike European-derived styles, table designs based on this style will nearly always contain a frame-in-panel top, the panel serving as the tabletop center and the frame sometimes also serving as what would be rails on a European table. Cabinets in this style have a top that does not protrude beyond the sides or front. The critical element in almost all pieces of this type is the mitered joints, especially the 3-way mitered joining of the leg and two horizontal pieces at each corner. Mortise tenon

The yoke and rack construction differs critically in the way that the legs of the piece are joined to the horizontal portion (be it tabletop, seat or cabinet carcass) using a type of wedged mortise-and-tenon joint where the end grain of the leg is visible as a circle in the frame of the tabletop. The cross-pieces (stretchers in the Western equivalent) are joined through

mortise-and-tenon A mortise and tenon (occasionally mortice and tenon) is a joint that connects two pieces of wood or other material. Woodworkers around the world have used it for thousands of years to join pieces of wood, mainly when the adjoining pieces connect ...

joinery as well. A mortise (卯 zh, p=Mǎo) is a slot or recess, and a tenon (榫 zh, p=Sǔn) is the projecting end of a piece of wood formed to fit into a corresponding mortise. Mortise-and-tenon joinery is an extremely old construction technique that has stood the test of time and is still being used today. The legs and stretchers are commonly round rather than square or curvilinear. The simplest pieces are simply four splayed legs attached to a solid top, but more complicated pieces contain decorative brackets, drawers and metal latches. Cabinets in this style typically have an overhanging top, similar to Western-style cabinetry. Bamboo construction style, although historically rooted in pieces made from bamboo, later saw many pieces made from hardwood with patterning to imitate the look of bamboo, or simply in the style of previous pieces made from bamboo. The construction is more similar to the yoke and rack style with some apparent crossover.

Gallery

File:Huanghuali wood furniture, China, - Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art - DSC09138.JPG, alt=, Huanghuali wood furniture, China, - Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art File:Chinese style furniture in Bang Pa In Chinese style palace.JPG, alt=, Chinese style furniture in Bang Pa In Chinese style palace File:Qing Furniture.jpg, alt=, Qing Furniture File:Ming Furniture 01.jpg, alt=, Ming Furniture File:Ming Furniture 02.jpg, alt=, Ming Furniture File:HK SWCC 上環文娛中心 Sheung Wan Civic Centre 6th Floor Exhibition Gallery 中信國際拍賣 Sincerity Auction preview Chinese furniture armchairs Nov 2018 IX1 01.jpg, alt=, Chinese furniture armchairs File:Qing Red Lacquer Furniture.jpg, alt=, Qing Red Lacquer Furniture File:Landscape with Pavilion Screens by Yuan Jiang and Wang Yun, 1720 (2).jpg, alt=, Landscape with Pavilion Screens by Yuan Jiang and Wang Yun, 1720 File:Ming Furniture Models from Tomb of Pan Yongcheng 02.jpg, alt=, Ming Furniture Models from Tomb of Pan Yongcheng File:HK Central 禮賓府 Government House 開放日 Open Day interior furniture Horse in art April-2012.jpg, alt=, HK Central Government House Open Day interior furniture Horse in art File:Design for Export Furniture MET DP807524.jpg, alt=, Chinese traditional chair. File:Chinese bed, 19th century.jpg, alt=, Chinese traditional bed, 19th century File:Design for Export Furniture MET DP807526.jpg, alt=, Traditional chairs and tables. File:Chinese garden seat, Qing dynasty, mid 19th century, hongmu wood, HAA.JPG, alt=, Chinese garden seat, Qing dynasty, mid 19th century, red wood File:Chinese clothes rack, Qing dynasty, dated 1823, hongmu wood, Honolulu Academy of Arts.JPG, alt=, Chinese clothes rack, Qing dynasty, dated 1823, hongmu wood, Honolulu Academy of Arts File:Tea caddy, Chinese - Indianapolis Museum of Art - DSC00646.JPG, alt=, Tea caddy, Chinese - Indianapolis Museum of Art File:象牙插屏-Pair of Table Screens with Flowers and Birds MET ASA5.jpg, alt=, Pair of Table Screens with Flowers and Birds File:Chinese Poems and Calligraphy MET LC-TR 189 2ab 2019 sr1-003.jpg, alt=, Chinese Poems and Calligraphy screen File:明晚期嵌螺鈿漆花鳥紋座屏-Table screen MET DP-14362-001.jpg, alt=, Late Ming dynasty table screen File:明晚期嵌螺鈿漆花鳥紋座屏-Table screen MET DP-14362-002.jpg, alt=, Late Ming dynasty table screen File:清晚期盧葵生款剔紅郭子儀賀壽圖屏風-Screen with birthday celebration for General Guo Ziyi MET DP211894.jpg, alt=, Chinese screen with birthday celebration for General Guo Ziyi File:Qing Screen Set on a Stand 02.jpg, alt=, Qing Screen Set on a Stand File:Qing Screen Set and Chair with Ivory Inlay.jpg, alt=, Qing Screen Set and Chair with Ivory Inlay

Notes

References

* *"Grove", Handler, Sarah,

Oxford Art Online Oxford Art Online is an Oxford University Press Oxford University Press (OUP) is the publishing house of the University of Oxford. It is the largest university press in the world. Its first book was printed in Oxford in 1478, with the Press ...

, "China, XII. Furniture"
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*

''China Today''. 2018-07-10. Retrieved 2021-04-20. *Wang, Shixiang; Yuan, Quanyou (1990). ''Connoisseurship of Chinese Furniture: Ming and Early Qing Dynasties''. *''Liu, Rui (March 2016). "Ergonomics of Ming Dynasty Chair Furniture". Packing Engineering. 37 (6).'' *Ma, Xuguang (2012-09-20). "从明清两代家具的风格看不同时期历史文化的差异". ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education''. 32(3). *Dong, Yunzhi (2009). "明清家具装饰风格比较研究". ''美与时代（上）''. 8.

External links

Classical Chinese Furniture: Information Cybercenter for the Collector and Scholar
Includes images of datable furniture, explanations of joinery and construction, a lengthy bibliographical section. {{DEFAULTSORT:Chinese Furniture Arts in China History of furniture

Cultural context

Ming dynasty furniture

Shape, style and culture

Decoration

Material

Four categories

Material

Construction

Gallery

See also

Notes

References

External links