The Inca-Chanka war was a semi-legendary,
mytho-historical,
potentially mythical,
military conflict fought between
Cusco
Cusco or Cuzco (; or , ) is a city in southeastern Peru, near the Sacred Valley of the Andes mountain range and the Huatanay river. It is the capital of the eponymous Cusco Province, province and Cusco Region, department.
The city was the cap ...
and the
Chanka chiefdom, several generations prior to the arrival of Europeans.
It is the final conflict between these two people.
The exact date of the conflict is unknown;
it potentially took place at the beginning of the
15th century
The 15th century was the century which spans the Julian calendar dates from 1 January 1401 (represented by the Roman numerals MCDI) to 31 December 1500 (MD).
In Europe, the 15th century includes parts of the Late Middle Ages, the Early Re ...
.
The
Chanka confederation was a loose defensive alliance of various independent chiefdoms, while the
Cusco confederation, which later became the
Inca Empire
The Inca Empire, officially known as the Realm of the Four Parts (, ), was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The administrative, political, and military center of the empire was in the city of Cusco. The History of the Incas, Inca ...
, was a unified, hierarchically structured polity with a ruling elite and a cultural identity.
After a victory during the Chanka
attack of Cusco, the Inca armies marched into Chanka territory and defeated them at the
battle of Yahuar Pampa.
The war was an important event to the geo-politics of the region, and opened the way for the creation of the
Inca Empire
The Inca Empire, officially known as the Realm of the Four Parts (, ), was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The administrative, political, and military center of the empire was in the city of Cusco. The History of the Incas, Inca ...
. Because of his victory,
Cusi Yupanqui, whose later name was
Pachacuti
Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui, also called Pachacútec (), was the ninth Sapa Inca of the Chiefdom of Cusco, which he transformed into the Inca Empire (). Most archaeologists now believe that the famous Inca site of Machu Picchu was built as an ...
, gained universal recognition, overthrowing his father, the ruler of Cusco, and his brother
Urco, the co-ruler and designated heir. Through his new found prestige he rapidly initiated the Inca expansion.
The effects of the war were exaggerated by the Inca ruling class, which made Cusi Yupanqui the archetype of its philosophical principals.
The historical accuracy of the story told by colonial documents of the episode of the Chanka attack against Cusco is regularly questioned.
Historicity
The historicity of the traditional story told by the Incas of Cusco is regularly called into question,
because of similarities with other cyclical stories of Inca mytho-history and a lack of alphabetically written sources.
Transmitted through
quipus
''Quipu'' ( ), also spelled ''khipu'', are record keeping devices fashioned from knotted cords. They were historically used by various cultures in the central Andes of South America, most prominently by the Inca Empire.
A ''quipu'' usually cons ...
(knotted cords), linked to oral texts and
pictographic
A pictogram (also pictogramme, pictograph, or simply picto) is a graphical symbol that conveys meaning through its visual resemblance to a physical object. Pictograms are used in systems of writing and visual communication. A pictography is a wri ...
images,
Inca historiography was separated into various
genres
Genre () is any style or form of communication in any mode (written, spoken, digital, artistic, etc.) with socially agreed-upon conventions developed over time. In popular usage, it normally describes a category of literature, music, or other form ...
, and each lineage had its own version of Inca history. Archeological evidence sometimes contradicts, and sometimes complements the traditional story.
According to the archaeologist and anthropologist
Gary Urton
Gary Urton (born July 7, 1946) is an American anthropologist. He was the Dumbarton Oaks Professor of Pre-Columbian Studies at Harvard University and the chair of its anthropology department between 2012 and 2019. Urton retired from Harvard in 20 ...
, two historiographical traditions exist; one considers Spanish colonial sources reliable and supports that the Chanka attack on Cusco represented the moment Inca myth became history, while the other thinks that the Chanka-Inca War was semi-legendary, but contained historical details, including the occupation of former
Wari lands.
Since the early
1980s
File:1980s replacement montage02.PNG, 335px, From left, clockwise: The first Space Shuttle, ''Space Shuttle Columbia, Columbia'', lifts off in 1981; US president Ronald Reagan and Soviet Union, Soviet General Secretary of the Communist Party of ...
, following the publication of a paper by the French anthropologist
Pierre Duviols, the academic consensus has seen the war as a largely mythical event.
The Peruvian ethno-historian
MarÃa Rostworowski
MarÃa Rostworowski Tovar de Diez Canseco (8 August 1915 – 6 March 2016) was a Peruvian historian known for her extensive and detailed publications on Peruvian Ancient Cultures and the Inca Empire.
Biography
Rostworowski was born in the Bar ...
thought the Chanka-Inca War to be the Incas' explanation for their rapid ascension.
According to her and González Carré, the Chankas were warrior hordes who defeated the
Wari State in the
11th century
The 11th century is the period from 1001 (represented by the Roman numerals MI) through 1100 (MC) in accordance with the Julian calendar, and the 1st century of the 2nd millennium.
In the history of Europe, this period is considered the early ...
, and Yupanqui's imperial title, Pachacuti, was an ancient title formerly used by Wari rulers.
Reiner Tom Zuidema
Reiner Tom Zuidema (May 24, 1927 – March 2, 2016) was professor of Anthropology and Latin American and Caribbean Studies at University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. He is well known for his seminal contributions on Inca social and political o ...
and Clementina Battcock consider the event to have been linked to conflicts between the religious ruling class and the warrior chieftains ("''sinchis''") who, according to Battcock, would have taken power following the news of a Chanka attack.
Franck Garcia indicates that archeological research in the
Andahuaylas
Andahuaylas ( Quechua Antawaylla, ''anta'' copper, ''waylla'' meadow, "copper meadow"), founded in 1533 as San Pedro de Andahuaylas «La Grande de la Corona» (Spanish for "The Grand ityof the Crown"), is a Peruvian city. It is the capital of the ...
region supports the existence of a powerful polity,
while for Frank Meddens and Cirilo Vivanco Pomacanchari, the Chanka confederation was a loose defensive alliance of various independent local chiefdoms, while the
Inca chiefdom of Cusco had a ruling elite, a unified cultural identity, and was in the process of developing a state structure.
According to them, the expansionist Inka state either invaded a Chanka chiefdom "ripe for conquest" and used the narrative of a Chanka attack to justify the conquest of territories northwest of Cusco, or started hostilities with the Chanka prior to the attack.
For Luis Millones and
Brian Bauer
Brian (sometimes spelled Bryan in English) is a male given name of Irish and Breton origin, as well as a surname of Occitan origin. It is common in the English-speaking world.
It is possible that the name is derived from an Old Celtic word mea ...
, the war was a "legendary saga" conceived to explain Inca ascension to power, which would have been of part of ancient
Wari tradition. For Terence N. D'Altroy, while the Chankas might have been an important adversary of the Incas in the early years of expansion, the "sagas of the Chanka wars may still be mostly a glorious epic invoked to burnish the image of the emperor's father",
Viracocha Inca
Viracocha Inca ( Quechua, the name of a god) or Viracocha (in hispanicized spelling) (1438) was the eighth '' Sapa Inka'' of the Kingdom of Cuzco (beginning around 1410) and the third of the Hanan dynasty.
Biography
He was not the son of Y ...
.
According to him, scepticism also arises from the confusion in the Inca ruler list, as Urco, usually represented as Viracocha Inca's favourite son and heir to the throne, was described by the colonial chronicler
Pedro Cieza de León
Pedro Cieza de León ( Llerena, Spain c. 1518 or 1520 – Seville, Spain July 2, 1554) was a Spanish conquistador and chronicler of Peru and Popayán. He is known primarily for his extensive work, ''Crónicas del Perú'' (The Chronicle of Peru), ...
as an independent ruler of Cusco, during the Viracocha Inca's life.
This assertion was later refuted by the indigenous chronicler
Yamqui Pachacuti.
For MarÃa Rostworowski, Urco was co-ruler of Viracocha Inca while the latter still lived, and was supposed to succeed him.
In order to take power from Urco, a short civil war occurred between Pachacuti and Urco following the Inca victory over the Chankas.
According to Cieza de Leon, the Incas removed Urco from the list of Inca rulers.
This inconsistency has been linked to a general debate between academics on Inca succession customs, some finding the Incas to have had concepts of absolute monarchy and primogeniture, others judging the latter two to be euro-centric concepts, believing the Incas to have evaluated the capacities of the successor by naming him co-regent of the Inca ruler, and others think a "generational succession" was also observable in the Andes.
For the Inca lineages (''
panakas
:''Panaka leads here. For Captain Panaka, a fictional character in Star Wars, see List of Star Wars characters#Quarsh Panaka''
A panaca or panaqa, or panaka was a family clan of the Sapa Inca, the kuraka or emperor of the Inca Empire. The panacas ...
''), who, according to their ascent, attributed the war to either Viracocha Inca or
Pachacuti
Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui, also called Pachacútec (), was the ninth Sapa Inca of the Chiefdom of Cusco, which he transformed into the Inca Empire (). Most archaeologists now believe that the famous Inca site of Machu Picchu was built as an ...
, the Pachacuti-Viracocha era was an explanatory unit used to describe the ascension of the Inca State, and Pachacuti became a national hero and an archetype of good government.
Attribution of the conquest
Chronology
The exact date of the conflict is unknown,
since it took place several generations prior to the Spanish arrival.
For the Peruvian historian
José Antonio del Busto Duthurburu
José Antonio del Busto Duthurburu (August 21, 1932 – December 25, 2006) was a Peruvian historian.
Biography
He completed his studies at the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru. After completing his studies he devoted himself to teaching ...
, the war lasted from
1424
Year 1424 ( MCDXXIV) was a leap year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar.
Events
January–March
* January 23 – William Cheyne becomes the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales, replacing the late William Hankford.
...
to
1425
Year 1425 (Roman numerals, MCDXXV) was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar.
Events
January – March
* January 8 – The internment of Ming dynasty China's Yongle Emperor, who died on August 12, takes place ...
.
According to the north-American archaeologist and anthropologist
John Howland Rowe
John Howland Rowe (June 10, 1918 – May 1, 2004) was an American archaeologist and anthropologist known for his extensive research on Peru, especially on the Inca civilization.
Rowe studied classical archaeology at Brown University (1935–1 ...
, the attack took place in
1438
Year 1438 ( MCDXXXVIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar.
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Albert II of Habsburg is crowned as King of Hungary at Székesfehérvár.
* January 8 – Upset at ...
.
The Peruvian ethno-historian MarÃa Rostworowski thought the conflict was fought at the beginning of the
15th century
The 15th century was the century which spans the Julian calendar dates from 1 January 1401 (represented by the Roman numerals MCDI) to 31 December 1500 (MD).
In Europe, the 15th century includes parts of the Late Middle Ages, the Early Re ...
. The Peruvian sociologist and political militant
Manuel Dammert wrote the event most likely took place somewhere between
1430
1430 (Roman numerals, MCDXXX) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar.
Events
January–March
* January 7 – Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, marries Isabella of Portugal, Duchess of Burgundy, Isabella of Po ...
and
1440
Events
January–March
* January 6 – Ludovico becomes the new Duke of Savoy upon the abdication of his father Amadeus VIII.
* January 8 – Seventeen new Roman Catholic Cardinals are added to the College of Cardinals afer h ...
.
Antecedents
The conflict between Incas and Chancas started during the reign of
Inca Roca
Inca Roca (Quechua = ''Inka Ruq'a'', " magnanimous Inca") () was the sixth Sapa Inca of the Kingdom of Cusco (beginning around 1350) and the first of the Hanan ("upper") Qusqu dynasty.Steele, Paul Richard and Allen, Catherine J.; (2004), ''Handb ...
. The Chankas, taking advantage of the disorder following Inca Roca's
coup d'état
A coup d'état (; ; ), or simply a coup
, is typically an illegal and overt attempt by a military organization or other government elites to unseat an incumbent leadership. A self-coup is said to take place when a leader, having come to powe ...
, conquered the
Andahuaylas
Andahuaylas ( Quechua Antawaylla, ''anta'' copper, ''waylla'' meadow, "copper meadow"), founded in 1533 as San Pedro de Andahuaylas «La Grande de la Corona» (Spanish for "The Grand ityof the Crown"), is a Peruvian city. It is the capital of the ...
region whose inhabitants were allies of the Incas. However, Inca Roca quickly reconquered the region. After
Yahuar Huacac's regicide, the Chankas used the subsequent disorder to their advantage again to retake the region. The conflict over the Andahuaylas region continued until the Chanka attack on Cuzco.
According to MarÃa Rostworowski, citing González Carré, the rivalry with the Chancas could have had its origins in the fall of the
Wari State, whose collapse was potentially to attacks by Chanca groups, who were less developed but apt for warfare.
Causes
War
During the reign of Viracocha Inca, the Chanka armies left their territory, around 1430, in order to conquer Cusco. Their forces were divided into three, in respect to the ancient tradition of the Andes. One army, led by Astu Huaraca and Tumay Huaraca, was heading towards Cusco, while the other two were in charge of conquering
Kuntisuyu, one being led by the generals Malma and Irapa, and the other being led by Yana Vilca and Teclo Vilca.
In Cusco, Viracocha Inca had given political and military command to his co-ruler and intended successor, Inca Urco,
[Robert Barker, ]
An Analysis of the Creation of Chronology and Genealogy of the Inca Dynasty in a Selection of Early Peruvian Chronicles
' (in English) (doctoral thesis), 2013, pp. 148–149, while the Chanka armies were stationed near Rimac Tampu, in Vilcacunga or Vilcacuna.
At the time, an internal conflict opposed the ruling religious caste to the class of warrior chieftains or ''sinchis''.
From Vilcacunga, the Chankas sent emissaries informing the Incas of their invasion, which led Viracocha Inca and his sons Urco and Socso to take refuge in the fort of
Caquia Xaquixaguana near Cusco.
Cusi Yupanqui, according to some chroniclers Viracocha's son, stayed to defend Cusco with the help of Viracocha's generals Apo Mayta, Vicaquirao, and Quiliscachi Urco Guaranga, and a group of nobles and servants.
The numbers of eight defendors indicated by colonial documents and four main figures were important in Inca social structure and cosmology.
The Canas and the Canchis, to the south of Cusco, allied with the Inca, while the
Ayarmaca allied with the Chanka. But the majority of the surrounding chiefdoms waited to see the outcome of the war.
In Susurpuquio, according to some colonial accounts, Pachacuti had a vision of the creator deity
Viracocha
Viracocha (also Wiraqocha, Huiracocha; Quechua Wiraqucha) is the creator and supreme deity in the pre-Inca and Inca mythology in the Andes region of South America. According to the myth Viracocha had human appearance and was generally consid ...
, who predicted his victory, a detail which, according to ethno-historian MarÃa Rostworowski, "has a remarkably European flavor, since Andean tradition would require offerings of numerous sacrifices
��in order to obtain the oracle".
Because of this vision, some colonial chroniclers have associated Pachacuti with the institution of Viracocha as the principal deity, while others have described Pachacuti as the founder of the ''
Inti
Inti is the ancient Inca mythology, Inca solar deity, sun god. He is revered as the national Tutelary deity, patron of the Inca state. Although most consider Inti the sun god, he is more appropriately viewed as a cluster of solar aspects, since t ...
'' sun cult, to the detriment of older deities such as Viracocha.
According to Catherine Julien, Pachacuti's vision was originally attributed to the solar supernatural, but was later associated with Viracocha, the latter potentially being an invention post-dating European conquest.
Attack of Cusco
The Chanka forces, convinced of their victory, attacked Cusco. However, against previous expectations, the Inca managed to defeat the Chankas, who were forced to retreat. Cusi Yupanqui, wanting to annihilate the Chanka chiefdom, led his armies into Chanka territory in order to win a decisive victory.
Battle of Yahuar Pampa
The two armies met at the village of Ichupampa, where a battle ensued, which the Incas won. This victory established Inca dominance over the region.
Inca conquest
When Cusi Yupanqui became emperor, his first act was to lead a military campaign against the previous allies and confederates of the Chankas. After having conquered the old Chanka territory he organized a triumph in Cusco.
Consequences
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References
Conflicts in 1438
Inca Empire
Inca society
Pre-Columbian warfare