The Atlantic Revolutions (22 March 1765 – 4 December 1838) were numerous revolutions in the Atlantic World in the late 18th and early 19th century. Following the

Age of Enlightenment The Age of Enlightenment or the Enlightenment; german: Aufklärung, "Enlightenment"; it, L'Illuminismo, "Enlightenment"; pl, Oświecenie, "Enlightenment"; pt, Iluminismo, "Enlightenment"; es, La Ilustración, "Enlightenment" was an intel ...

, ideas critical of absolutist monarchies began to spread. A revolutionary wave soon occurred, with the aim of ending monarchical rule, emphasizing the ideals of the

Enlightenment Enlightenment or enlighten may refer to: Age of Enlightenment * Age of Enlightenment, period in Western intellectual history from the late 17th to late 18th century, centered in France but also encompassing (alphabetically by country or culture): ...

, and spreading

liberalism Liberalism is a political and moral philosophy based on the rights of the individual, liberty, consent of the governed, political equality and equality before the law."political rationalism, hostility to autocracy, cultural distaste for ...

. In 1755, early signs of governmental changes occurred with the formation of the

Corsican Republic In November 1755, Pasquale Paoli proclaimed Corsica a sovereign nation, the Corsican Republic ( it, Repubblica Corsa), independent from the Republic of Genoa. He created the Corsican Constitution, which was the first constitution written in I ...

and Pontiac's War. The largest of these early revolutions was the

American Revolution The American Revolution was an ideological and political revolution that occurred in British America between 1765 and 1791. The Americans in the Thirteen Colonies formed independent states that defeated the British in the American Revolu ...

in 1765, where American colonists felt that they were taxed without representation by the Parliament of Great Britain, and formed the

United States of America The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territor ...

. The American Revolution inspired other movements, including the

French Revolution The French Revolution ( ) was a period of radical political and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended with the formation of the French Consulate in November 1799. Many of its ideas are conside ...

in 1789 and the

Haitian Revolution The Haitian Revolution (french: révolution haïtienne ; ht, revolisyon ayisyen) was a successful insurrection by self-liberated slaves against French colonial rule in Saint-Domingue, now the sovereign state of Haiti. The revolt began on 22 ...

in 1791. These revolutions were inspired by the equivocation of personal freedom with the right to own property—an idea spread by

Edmund Burke Edmund Burke (; 12 January New Style">NS/nowiki> 1729 – 9 July 1797) was an Anglo-Irish people">Anglo-Irish Politician">statesman, economist, and philosopher. Born in Dublin, Burke served as a member of Parliament (MP) between 1766 and 1794 ...

—and by the equality of all men, an idea expressed in

constitution A constitution is the aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organisation or other type of entity and commonly determine how that entity is to be governed. When these princip ...

s written as a result of these revolutions.

History

It took place in both the Americas and Europe, including the

United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 U.S. state, states, a Washington, D.C., federal district, five ma ...

(1765–1783),

Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, formally known as the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and, after 1791, as the Commonwealth of Poland, was a bi- confederal state, sometimes called a federation, of Poland and Lithuania ...

(1788–1792), France and French-controlled Europe (1789–1814),

Haiti Haiti (; ht, Ayiti ; French: ), officially the Republic of Haiti (); ) and formerly known as Hayti, is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea, east of Cuba and Jamaica, and ...

(1791–1804),

Ireland Ireland ( ; ga, Éire ; Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean, in Northwestern Europe, north-western Europe. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel (Grea ...

(1798) and

Spanish America Spanish America refers to the Spanish territories in the Americas during the Spanish colonization of the Americas. The term "Spanish America" was specifically used during the territories' imperial era between 15th and 19th centuries. To the en ...

(1810–1825). There were smaller upheavals in Switzerland, Russia, and Brazil. The revolutionaries in each country knew of the others and to some degree were inspired by or emulated them. Independence movements in the

New World The term ''New World'' is often used to mean the majority of Earth's Western Hemisphere, specifically the Americas."America." ''The Oxford Companion to the English Language'' (). McArthur, Tom, ed., 1992. New York: Oxford University Press, p. ...

began with the

, 1765–1783, in which France, the Netherlands and Spain assisted the new United States of America as it secured independence from

Britain Britain most often refers to: * The United Kingdom, a sovereign state in Europe comprising the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands * Great Britain, the largest island in the United King ...

. In the 1790s the

broke out. With Spain tied down in European wars, the mainland

Spanish colonies The Spanish Empire ( es, link=no, Imperio español), also known as the Hispanic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Hispánica) or the Catholic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Católica) was a colonial empire governed by Spain and its predec ...

secured independence around 1820. Bastille-day-belfast-1791

In long-term perspective, the revolutions were mostly successful. They spread widely the ideals of

republicanism Republicanism is a political ideology centered on citizenship in a state organized as a republic. Historically, it emphasises the idea of self-rule and ranges from the rule of a representative minority or oligarchy to popular sovereignty. It ...

, the overthrow of aristocracies, kings and established churches. They emphasized the universal ideals of the

, such as the equality of all men, including equal justice under law by disinterested courts as opposed to particular justice handed down at the whim of a local noble. They showed that the modern notion of revolution, of starting fresh with a radically new government, could actually work in practice. Revolutionary mentalities were born and continue to flourish to the present day.Robert R. Palmer, ''The Age of the Democratic Revolution: A Political History of Europe and America, 1760–1800.'' (2 vol, 1959–1964) The common Atlantic theme breaks down to some extent from reading the works of

. Burke firstly supported the American colonists in 1774 in "

On American Taxation "On American Taxation" was a speech given by Edmund Burke in the British House of Commons on April 19, 1774, advocating the full repeal of the Townshend Revenue Act of 1767. Parliament had previously repealed five of the six duties of this revenue ...

", and took the view that their property and other rights were being infringed by the crown without their consent. In apparent contrast, Burke distinguished and deplored the process of the French revolution in ''

Reflections on the Revolution in France ''Reflections on the Revolution in France'' is a political pamphlet written by the Irish statesman Edmund Burke and published in November 1790. It is fundamentally a contrast of the French Revolution to that time with the unwritten British Cons ...

'' (1790), as in this case property, customary and religious rights were being removed summarily by the revolutionaries and not by the crown. In both cases he was following

Montesquieu Charles Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (; ; 18 January 168910 February 1755), generally referred to as simply Montesquieu, was a French judge, man of letters, historian, and political philosopher. He is the principa ...

's theory that the right to own property is an essential element of personal freedom.

National revolutions

* Corsican Revolution (1755–1769) * Pontiac's War (1763–1766) *

(1765–1783) * Geneva Revolution (1782) *

Northwest Indian War The Northwest Indian War (1786–1795), also known by other names, was an armed conflict for control of the Northwest Territory fought between the United States and a united group of Native American nations known today as the Northwester ...

(1785–1795) * Revolt of Dutch Patriots (1785) *

(1789–1799) * Liège Revolution (1789–1795) * Brabant Revolution (1790) *

(1791–1804) * In the

British Virgin Islands ) , anthem = " God Save the King" , song_type = Territorial song , song = "Oh, Beautiful Virgin Islands" , image_map = File:British Virgin Islands on the globe (Americas centered).svg , map_caption = , mapsize = 290px , image_map2 = Bri ...

, minor slave revolts occurred in 1790, 1823 and 1830. * Polish War in the defence of constitution (1792) and Kościuszko Uprising (1794) * Stäfner Handel in Canton of Zürich, Switzerland (1794–1795) *

Batavian Revolution The Batavian Revolution ( nl, De Bataafse Revolutie) was a time of political, social and cultural turmoil at the end of the 18th century that marked the end of the Dutch Republic and saw the proclamation of the Batavian Republic. The period of ...

(1795) * Slave revolt in Curaçao (1795) * Bush War, Saint Lucia (1795) * Fédon's rebellion, Grenada (1796) * Second Maroon War, Jamaica (1795–1796) * Second Carib War, Saint Vincent (1795–1797) * Scottish Rebellion (1797) * United Irish Rebellion (1798) * Helvetic Revolution (1798) * Altamuran Revolution (1799) * Fulani Jihad (1804–1808), establishing the Sokoto Caliphate * 1811 German Coast uprising (1811, Louisiana) * Norwegian War of Independence (1814) *

Decembrist revolt The Decembrist Revolt ( ru , Восстание декабристов, translit = Vosstaniye dekabristov , translation = Uprising of the Decembrists) took place in Russia on , during the interregnum following the sudden death of Emperor Al ...

(1825) and Chernigov Regiment revolt (1825–1826) * Upper and Lower Canada Rebellions (1837–1838) * Latin American wars of independence ** Brazilian revolutionary movements *** Minas Conspiracy in

Minas Gerais Minas Gerais () is a state in Southeastern Brazil. It ranks as the second most populous, the third by gross domestic product (GDP), and the fourth largest by area in the country. The state's capital and largest city, Belo Horizonte (literall ...

, Brazil (1789) *** Bahian Revolt (''Conjuração Baiana'') in

Bahia Bahia ( , , ; meaning "bay") is one of the 26 states of Brazil, located in the Northeast Region of the country. It is the fourth-largest Brazilian state by population (after São Paulo, Minas Gerais, and Rio de Janeiro) and the 5th-largest ...

, Brazil (1798) *** Pernambucan Revolt in

Pernambuco Pernambuco () is a state of Brazil, located in the Northeast region of the country. With an estimated population of 9.6 million people as of 2020, making it seventh-most populous state of Brazil and with around 98,148 km², being the ...

, Brazil (1817) *** War of Independence of Brazil (1821–1824) ** José Leonardo Chirino's Insurrection, Venezuela (1795) **

Spanish American wars of independence The Spanish American wars of independence (25 September 1808 – 29 September 1833; es, Guerras de independencia hispanoamericanas) were numerous wars in Spanish America with the aim of political independence from Spanish rule during the early ...

(1808–1833) ***

Argentine War of Independence The Argentine War of Independence ( es, Guerra de Independencia de Argentina, links=no) was a secessionist civil war fought from 1810 to 1818 by Argentine patriotic forces under Manuel Belgrano, Juan José Castelli and José de San Martí ...

****

May Revolution The May Revolution ( es, Revolución de Mayo) was a week-long series of events that took place from May 18 to 25, 1810, in Buenos Aires, capital of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. This Spanish colony included roughly the terr ...

(

Argentina Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, t ...

and neighbouring countries, 1810) **** Oriental Revolution (Uruguay, 1811) *** Chilean War of Independence ***

Peruvian War of Independence The Peruvian War of Independence ( es, Guerra de Independencia del Perú, links=no) consisted in a series of military conflicts in Peru beginning with viceroy Abascal military victories in the south frontier in 1809, in La Paz revolution a ...

*** Bolivian War of Independence *** Military career of Simón Bolívar (Northern and Western South America) *** Ecuadorian War of Independence *** '' Patria Boba'' ( Colombia) ***

Venezuelan War of Independence The Venezuelan War of Independence ( es, Guerra de Independencia de Venezuela, links=no, 1810–1823) was one of the Spanish American wars of independence of the early nineteenth century, when independence movements in Latin America fought aga ...

***

Mexican War of Independence The Mexican War of Independence ( es, Guerra de Independencia de México, links=no, 16 September 1810 – 27 September 1821) was an armed conflict and political process resulting in Mexico's independence from Spain. It was not a single, co ...

(1810–1821) Various connecting threads among these varied uprisings include a concern for the "Rights of Man" and freedom of the individual; an idea (often predicated on John Locke or

Jean-Jacques Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau (, ; 28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Age of Enlightenment throughout Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revol ...

) of popular sovereignty; belief in a "

social contract In moral and political philosophy, the social contract is a theory or model that originated during the Age of Enlightenment and usually, although not always, concerns the legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual. Social ...

", which in turn was often codified in written

s; a certain complex of religious convictions often associated with

deism Deism ( or ; derived from the Latin '' deus'', meaning "god") is the philosophical position and rationalistic theology that generally rejects revelation as a source of divine knowledge, and asserts that empirical reason and observation ...

Voltaire François-Marie Arouet (; 21 November 169430 May 1778) was a French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher. Known by his '' nom de plume'' M. de Voltaire (; also ; ), he was famous for his wit, and his criticism of Christianity—es ...

agnosticism Agnosticism is the view or belief that the existence of God, of the divine or the supernatural is unknown or unknowable. (page 56 in 1967 edition) Another definition provided is the view that "human reason is incapable of providing sufficie ...

, and characterized by veneration of reason; abhorrence of

feudalism Feudalism, also known as the feudal system, was the combination of the legal, economic, military, cultural and political customs that flourished in medieval Europe between the 9th and 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a way of structu ...

and often of

monarchy A monarchy is a form of government in which a person, the monarch, is head of state for life or until abdication. The political legitimacy and authority of the monarch may vary from restricted and largely symbolic (constitutional monarchy ...

itself. The Atlantic Revolutions also had many shared symbols, including the name " Patriot" used by so many revolutionary groups; the slogan of "

Liberty Liberty is the ability to do as one pleases, or a right or immunity enjoyed by prescription or by grant (i.e. privilege). It is a synonym for the word freedom. In modern politics, liberty is understood as the state of being free within society fr ...

"; the liberty cap; Lady Liberty or Marianne; the tree of liberty or liberty pole, and so on.

Individuals and movements

* George Washington (United States) *

John Adams John Adams (October 30, 1735 – July 4, 1826) was an American statesman, attorney, diplomat, writer, and Founding Fathers of the United States, Founding Father who served as the second president of the United States from 1797 to 1801. Befor ...

(United States) *

Thomas Jefferson Thomas Jefferson (April 13, 1743 – July 4, 1826) was an American statesman, diplomat, lawyer, architect, philosopher, and Founding Father who served as the third president of the United States from 1801 to 1809. He was previously the nati ...

(United States) * Alexander Hamilton (United States) *

Benjamin Franklin Benjamin Franklin ( April 17, 1790) was an American polymath who was active as a writer, scientist, inventor An invention is a unique or novel device, method, composition, idea or process. An invention may be an improvement upon a m ...

(United States) * Sons of Liberty (North America) *

Maximilien Robespierre Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre (; 6 May 1758 – 28 July 1794) was a French lawyer and statesman who became one of the best-known, influential and controversial figures of the French Revolution. As a member of the Esta ...

(France) *

Marquis de Lafayette Marie-Joseph Paul Yves Roch Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de La Fayette (6 September 1757 – 20 May 1834), known in the United States as Lafayette (, ), was a French aristocrat, freemason and military officer who fought in the American Revoluti ...

(France and North America) *

Georges Danton Georges Jacques Danton (; 26 October 1759 – 5 April 1794) was a French lawyer and a leading figure in the French Revolution. He became a deputy to the Paris Commune, presided in the Cordeliers district, and visited the Jacobin club. In Augu ...

(France) *

Napoleon Bonaparte Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader wh ...

(France and most of Europe) *

Jacobin Club , logo = JacobinVignette03.jpg , logo_size = 180px , logo_caption = Seal of the Jacobin Club (1792–1794) , motto = "Live free or die"(french: Vivre libre ou mourir) , successor = P ...

(France, 1789–1794) * Société des Amis des Noirs (France) * Patriots (Netherlands) * Richard Price and

Joseph Priestley Joseph Priestley (; 24 March 1733 – 6 February 1804) was an English chemist, natural philosopher, separatist theologian, grammarian, multi-subject educator, and liberal political theorist. He published over 150 works, and conducted e ...

(Great Britain) *

Thomas Paine Thomas Paine (born Thomas Pain; – In the contemporary record as noted by Conway, Paine's birth date is given as January 29, 1736–37. Common practice was to use a dash or a slash to separate the old-style year from the new-style year. In th ...

(Great Britain and North America) *

Society of the Friends of the People The Society of the Friends of the People was an organisation in Great Britain that was focused on advocating for Parliamentary Reform. It was founded by the Whig Party in 1792. The Society in England was aristocratic and exclusive, in contrast ...

(Great Britain, 1792-) *

London Corresponding Society The London Corresponding Society (LCS) was a federation of local reading and debating clubs that in the decade following the French Revolution agitated for the democratic reform of the British Parliament. In contrast to other reform associati ...

(Great Britain) *

Society of the United Scotsmen The Society of the United Scotsmen was an organisation formed in Scotland in the late 18th century and sought widespread political reform throughout Great Britain. It grew out of previous radical movements such as the ''Friends of the People Socie ...

(Scotland) * Nore mutiny (Great Britain) * Society of the United Englishmen * Wolfe Tone (Ireland) * Society of United Irishmen (Ireland, 1791–1804) * Lautaro Lodge * Pasquale Paoli (Corsica) *

Usman Dan Fodio Usman Ɗan Fodio ( ar, عثمان بن فودي, translit=ʿUthmān ibn Fodio; 15 December 1754 – 20 April 1817) was a Fulani scholar, Sunni Islamic religious teacher, revolutionary, and philosopher who founded the Sokoto Caliphate and rul ...

(West Africa) * Charles Deslondes (German Coast) * Francisco de Miranda *

Société des Fils de la Liberté The Société des Fils de la Liberté (, ''Society of the Sons of Liberty'') was a paramilitary organization founded in August 1837 in Lower Canada (modern-day Quebec). History The society was founded by young supporters of the Parti patriote w ...

(

Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tota ...

) *

Louis-Joseph Papineau Louis-Joseph Papineau (October 7, 1786 – September 23, 1871), born in Montreal, Quebec, was a politician, lawyer, and the landlord of the ''seigneurie de la Petite-Nation''. He was the leader of the reformist Patriote movement before the Lowe ...

(Canada) * William Lyon Mackenzie (Canada) * Samuel Lount (Canada) * John Lambton 1st Earl of Durham (Canada, United Kingdom) *

Tadeusz Kościuszko Andrzej Tadeusz Bonawentura Kościuszko ( be, Andréj Tadévuš Banavientúra Kasciúška, en, Andrew Thaddeus Bonaventure Kosciuszko; 4 or 12 February 174615 October 1817) was a Polish military engineer, statesman, and military leader who ...

Toussaint Louverture François-Dominique Toussaint Louverture (; also known as Toussaint L'Ouverture or Toussaint Bréda; 20 May 1743 – 7 April 1803) was a Haitian general and the most prominent leader of the Haitian Revolution. During his life, Louverture ...

(Haiti) *

Inconfidência Mineira Inconfidência Mineira (; "Minas Gerais Conspiracy") was an unsuccessful separatist movement in Brazil in 1789. It was the result of a confluence of external and internal causes in what was then colonial Brazil. The external inspiration was th ...

(Brazil, 1789) * Conjuração baiana (Brazil, 1798) *

Simón Bolívar Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios (24 July 1783 – 17 December 1830) was a Venezuelan military and political leader who led what are currently the countries of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Panama and ...

(Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia) *

José de San Martín José Francisco de San Martín y Matorras (25 February 177817 August 1850), known simply as José de San Martín () or '' the Liberator of Argentina, Chile and Peru'', was an Argentine general and the primary leader of the southern and cent ...

(Argentina, Chile, Peru) *

José Gervasio Artigas José Gervasio Artigas Arnal (; June 19, 1764 – September 23, 1850) was a political leader, military general, statesman and national hero of Uruguay and the broader Río de la Plata region. He fought in the Latin American wars of in ...

(Uruguay, Argentina) *

José María Morelos José María Teclo Morelos Pérez y Pavón () (30 September 1765 – 22 December 1815) was a Mexican Catholic priest, statesman and military leader who led the Mexican War of Independence movement, assuming its leadership after the execution of ...

(Mexico) * Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla (Mexico) *

Agustín de Iturbide Agustín de Iturbide (; 27 September 178319 July 1824), full name Agustín Cosme Damián de Iturbide y Arámburu and also known as Agustín of Mexico, was a Mexican army general and politician. During the Mexican War of Independence, he built ...

(Mexico) *

Vicente Guerrero Vicente Ramón Guerrero (; baptized August 10, 1782 – February 14, 1831) was one of the leading revolutionary generals of the Mexican War of Independence. He fought against Spain for independence in the early 19th century, and later served as ...

(Mexico)

Notes

References and further reading

* Canny, Nicholas, and Philip Morgan, eds. ''The Oxford handbook of the Atlantic world: 1450-1850'' (Oxford UP, 2011). * Donoghue, John. ''Fire under the Ashes: An Atlantic History of the English Revolution'' (U of Chicago Press, 2013). *Geggus, David P. ''The Impact of the Haitian Revolution in the Atlantic World'' (2002) * Jacques Godechot. ''France and the Atlantic revolution of the eighteenth century, 1770–1799'' (1965) *Gould, Eliga H. and Peter S. Onuf, eds. ''Empire and Nation : The American Revolution in the Atlantic World'' (2004) *Greene, Jack P., Franklin W. Knight, Virginia Guedea, and Jaime E. Rodríguez O. "AHR Forum: Revolutions in the Americas", ''American Historical Review'' (2000) 105#1 92–152. Advanced scholarly essays comparing different revolutions in the New World
in JSTOR
*Klooster, Wim. ''Revolutions in the Atlantic World: A Comparative History'' (2nd ed. 2018) * Leonard, A.B. and David Pretel, eds. ''The Caribbean and the Atlantic World Economy''(2018) *Palmer, Robert. ''The Age of Democratic Revolutions'' 2 vols. (1959, 1964) * Perl-Rosenthal, Nathan. "Atlantic cultures and the age of revolution." ''William & Mary Quarterly'' 74.4 (2017): 667-696
online
* Polasky, Janet L. ''Revolutions without Borders'' (Yale UP, 2015). 392 pp
online review
* Potofsky, Allan. "Paris-on-the-Atlantic from the Old Regime to the Revolution." ''French History'' 25.1 (2011): 89-107. *Sepinwall, Alyssa G. "Atlantic Revolutions", in ''Encyclopedia of the Modern World'', ed. Peter Stearns (2008), I: 284 – 289 *Verhoeven, W.M. and Beth Dolan Kautz, eds. '' Revolutions and Watersheds: Transatlantic Dialogues, 1775–1815'' (1999) * Vidal, Cécile, and Michèle R. Greer. "For a Comprehensive History of the Atlantic World or Histories Connected In and Beyond the Atlantic World?." ''Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales'' 67#2 (2012)

{{Revwave Revolutionary waves Age of Enlightenment Revolutions 18th-century revolutions 19th-century revolutions Age of Revolution

History

National revolutions

Individuals and movements

See also

Notes

References and further reading