Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH), also known as Müllerian-inhibiting hormone (MIH), is a
glycoprotein
Glycoproteins are proteins which contain oligosaccharide (sugar) chains covalently attached to amino acid side-chains. The carbohydrate is attached to the protein in a cotranslational or posttranslational modification. This process is known a ...
hormone
A hormone (from the Ancient Greek, Greek participle , "setting in motion") is a class of cell signaling, signaling molecules in multicellular organisms that are sent to distant organs or tissues by complex biological processes to regulate physio ...
structurally related to
inhibin and activin from the
transforming growth factor beta
Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) is a multifunctional cytokine belonging to the transforming growth factor superfamily that includes three different mammalian isoforms (TGF-β 1 to 3, HGNC symbols TGFB1, TGFB2, TGFB3) and many other ...
superfamily, whose key roles are in growth differentiation and
folliculogenesis.
In humans, it is encoded by the
gene
In biology, the word gene has two meanings. The Mendelian gene is a basic unit of heredity. The molecular gene is a sequence of nucleotides in DNA that is transcribed to produce a functional RNA. There are two types of molecular genes: protei ...
, on
chromosome 19
Chromosome 19 is one of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans. People normally have two copies of this chromosome. Chromosome 19 spans more than 61.7 million base pairs, the building material of DNA. It is considered the most Gene density, gene-ri ...
p13.3,
while its
receptor
Receptor may refer to:
* Sensory receptor, in physiology, any neurite structure that, on receiving environmental stimuli, produces an informative nerve impulse
*Receptor (biochemistry), in biochemistry, a protein molecule that receives and respond ...
is encoded by the gene on
chromosome 12
Chromosome 12 is one of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans. People normally have two copies of this chromosome. Chromosome 12 spans about 133 million base pairs (the building material of DNA) and represents between 4 and 4.5 percent of the tot ...
.
AMH is activated by
SOX9
Transcription factor SOX-9 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''SOX9'' gene.
Function
SOX-9 recognizes the sequence CCTTGAG along with other members of the HMG-box class DNA-binding domain, DNA-binding proteins. It is expressed by ...
in the
Sertoli cell
Sertoli cells are a type of sustentacular "nurse" cell found in human testes which contribute to the process of spermatogenesis (the production of sperm) as a structural component of the seminiferous tubules. They are activated by follicle-sti ...
s of the male fetus.
Its expression inhibits the development of the female reproductive tract, or
Müllerian duct
The paramesonephric ducts (or Müllerian ducts) are paired ducts of the embryo in the reproductive system of humans and other mammals that run down the lateral sides of the genital ridge and terminate at the sinus tubercle in the primitive uroge ...
s (
paramesonephric ducts), in the male
embryo
An embryo ( ) is the initial stage of development for a multicellular organism. In organisms that reproduce sexually, embryonic development is the part of the life cycle that begins just after fertilization of the female egg cell by the male sp ...
, thereby arresting the development of fallopian tubes, uterus, and upper vagina.
''AMH'' expression is critical to sex differentiation at a specific time during fetal development, and appears to be tightly regulated by
nuclear receptor
In the field of molecular biology, nuclear receptors are a class of proteins responsible for sensing steroids, thyroid hormones, vitamins, and certain other molecules. These intracellular receptors work with other proteins to regulate the ex ...
SF-1,
transcription GATA factors, sex-reversal gene
DAX1, and
follicle-stimulating hormone
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is a gonadotropin, a glycoprotein polypeptide hormone. FSH is synthesized and secreted by the gonadotropic cells of the anterior pituitary gland and regulates the development, growth, puberty, pubertal maturat ...
(FSH). Mutations in both the ''AMH'' gene and the type II AMH receptor have been shown to cause the persistence of Müllerian derivatives in males that are otherwise normally masculinized.
AMH is also a product of
granulosa cells of the preantral and small antral follicles in women. As such, AMH is only present in the ovary until
menopause
Menopause, also known as the climacteric, is the time when Menstruation, menstrual periods permanently stop, marking the end of the Human reproduction, reproductive stage for the female human. It typically occurs between the ages of 45 and 5 ...
.
Production of AMH regulates folliculogenesis by inhibiting recruitment of follicles from the resting pool in order to select for the dominant follicle, after which the production of AMH diminishes.
As a product of the granulosa cells, which envelop each egg and provide them energy, AMH can also serve as a molecular biomarker for relative size of the
ovarian reserve Ovarian reserve is a term that is used to determine the capacity of the ovary to provide egg cells that are capable of fertilization resulting in a healthy and successful pregnancy. With advanced maternal age, the number of egg cell that can be suc ...
.
In bovine, AMH can be used for selection of females in multi-ovulatory embryo transfer programs by predicting the number of antral follicles developed to ovulation. AMH can also be used as a marker for ovarian dysfunction, such as in women with
polycystic ovary syndrome
Polycystic ovary syndrome, or polycystic ovarian syndrome, (PCOS) is the most common endocrine disorder in women of reproductive age. The name is a misnomer, as not all women with this condition develop cysts on their ovaries. The name origin ...
(PCOS).
Structure
AMH is a
dimeric glycoprotein
Glycoproteins are proteins which contain oligosaccharide (sugar) chains covalently attached to amino acid side-chains. The carbohydrate is attached to the protein in a cotranslational or posttranslational modification. This process is known a ...
with a
molar mass
In chemistry, the molar mass () (sometimes called molecular weight or formula weight, but see related quantities for usage) of a chemical substance ( element or compound) is defined as the ratio between the mass () and the amount of substance ...
of 140
kDa. The molecule consists of two identical subunits linked by sulfide bridges, and characterized by the N-terminal dimer (pro-region) and C-terminal dimer.
AMH binds to its Type 2 receptor
AMHR2, which phosphorylates a type I receptor under the
TGF beta signaling pathway
The transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) signaling pathway is involved in many cellular processes in both the adult organism and the developing embryo including cell growth, cell differentiation, cell migration, apoptosis, cellular homeostasis a ...
.
Function
Embryogenesis
In male mammals, AMH prevents the development of the
Müllerian duct
The paramesonephric ducts (or Müllerian ducts) are paired ducts of the embryo in the reproductive system of humans and other mammals that run down the lateral sides of the genital ridge and terminate at the sinus tubercle in the primitive uroge ...
s into the
uterus
The uterus (from Latin ''uterus'', : uteri or uteruses) or womb () is the hollow organ, organ in the reproductive system of most female mammals, including humans, that accommodates the embryonic development, embryonic and prenatal development, f ...
and other Müllerian structures.
The effect is ipsilateral, that is each testis suppresses Müllerian development only on its own side.
If no hormone is produced from the gonads, the Müllerian will develop thanks to the presence of Wnt4 , while the
Wolffian ducts
The mesonephric duct, also known as the Wolffian duct, archinephric duct, Leydig's duct or nephric duct, is a paired organ that develops in the early stages of embryonic development in humans and other mammals. It is an important structure that pl ...
, which are responsible for male reproductive parts, will die due to the presence of COUP-TFII. Amounts of AMH that are measurable in the blood vary by age and sex. AMH works by interacting with specific
receptors on the surfaces of the cells of target tissues (
anti-Müllerian hormone receptors). The best-known and most specific effect, mediated through the AMH type II receptors, includes programmed cell death (
apoptosis
Apoptosis (from ) is a form of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms and in some eukaryotic, single-celled microorganisms such as yeast. Biochemistry, Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes (Morphology (biol ...
) of the target tissue (the fetal Müllerian ducts).
Ovarian
AMH is produced by granulosa cells from pre-antral and antral follicles, restricting expression to growing follicles, until they have reached the size and differentiation state at which they are selected for dominance by the action of pituitary FSH. Ovarian AMH expression has been observed as early as 36 weeks' gestation in the humans' fetus. AMH expression is greatest in the recruitment stage of folliculogenesis, in the preantral and small antral follicles. This expression diminishes as follicles develop and enter selection stage, upon which FSH expression increases.
Some authorities suggest it is a measure of certain aspects of ovarian function, useful in assessing conditions such as
polycystic ovary syndrome
Polycystic ovary syndrome, or polycystic ovarian syndrome, (PCOS) is the most common endocrine disorder in women of reproductive age. The name is a misnomer, as not all women with this condition develop cysts on their ovaries. The name origin ...
and
premature ovarian failure
Primary ovarian insufficiency (POI), also called premature ovarian insufficiency and premature ovarian failure, is the partial or total loss of reproductive and hormonal function of the ovaries before age 40 because of follicular ( egg produc ...
.
Other
AMH production by the
Sertoli cell
Sertoli cells are a type of sustentacular "nurse" cell found in human testes which contribute to the process of spermatogenesis (the production of sperm) as a structural component of the seminiferous tubules. They are activated by follicle-sti ...
s of the testes remains high throughout childhood in males but declines to low levels during puberty and adult life. AMH has been shown to regulate production of
sex hormone
Sex hormones, also known as sex steroids, gonadocorticoids and gonadal steroids, are steroid hormones that interact with vertebrate steroid hormone receptors. The sex hormones include the androgens, estrogens, and progestogens. Their effects a ...
s,
and changing AMH levels (rising in females, falling in males) may be involved in the onset of puberty in both sexes. Functional AMH receptors have also been found to be expressed in neurons in the brains of embryonic mice, and are thought to play a role in sexually
dimorphic brain development and consequent development of gender-specific behaviours.
In a clade of ''
Sebastes'' rockfishes in the Northwest Pacific Ocean, a duplicated copy of the ''AMH'' gene (called ''AMHY'') is the master sex-determining gene.
''In vitro'' experiments demonstrate that the overexpression of ''AMHY'' causes female-to-male sex reversal in at least one species, ''
S. schlegelii''.
Pathology
In males, inadequate embryonal AMH activity can lead to
persistent Müllerian duct syndrome
Persistent Müllerian duct syndrome (PMDS) is the presence of Müllerian duct derivatives (fallopian tubes, uterus, and/or the upper part of the vagina) in what would be considered a genetically and otherwise physically normal male. In humans, ...
(PMDS), in which a rudimentary uterus is present and testes are usually
undescended. The AMH gene (''AMH'') or the gene for its receptor (''AMH-RII'') are usually abnormal. AMH measurements have also become widely used in the evaluation of testicular presence and function in infants with
intersex
Intersex people are those born with any of several sex characteristics, including chromosome patterns, gonads, or genitals that, according to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, "do not fit typical binar ...
conditions,
ambiguous genitalia
Intersex people are those born with any of several Sexual characteristics, sex characteristics, including chromosome patterns, gonads, or sex organ, genitals that, according to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human ...
, and
cryptorchidism.
A study published in Nature Medicine found a link between hormonal imbalance in the womb and
polycystic ovary syndrome
Polycystic ovary syndrome, or polycystic ovarian syndrome, (PCOS) is the most common endocrine disorder in women of reproductive age. The name is a misnomer, as not all women with this condition develop cysts on their ovaries. The name origin ...
(PCOS), specifically prenatal exposure to anti-Müllerian hormone. For the study, the researchers injected pregnant mice with AMH so that they had a higher than normal concentration of the hormone. Indeed, they gave birth to daughters who later developed PCOS-like tendencies. These included problems with fertility, delayed puberty, and erratic ovulation. To reverse it, the researchers dosed the polycystic mice with an IVF drug called
cetrorelix
Cetrorelix (, ), or cetrorelix acetate (, ), sold under the brand name Cetrotide, is an injectable gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist, antagonist. A synthetic compound, synthetic decapeptide, it is us ...
, which made the symptoms go away. These experiments should be confirmed in humans, but it could be the first step in understanding the relationship between the polycystic ovary and the anti-Müllerian hormone.
Blood levels
In healthy females AMH is either just detectable or undetectable in cord blood at birth and demonstrates a marked rise by three months of age; while still detectable it falls until four years of age before rising linearly until eight years of age remaining fairly constant from mid-childhood to early adulthood – it does not change significantly during
puberty
Puberty is the process of physical changes through which a child's body matures into an adult body capable of sexual reproduction. It is initiated by hormonal signals from the brain to the gonads: the ovaries in a female, the testicles i ...
.
The rise during childhood and adolescence is likely reflective of different stages of follicle development.
From 25 years of age AMH declines to undetectable levels at menopause.
The standard measurement of AMH follows the ''Generation II assay''. This should give the same values as the previously used IBC assay, but AMH values from the previously used DSL assay should be multiplied with 1.39 to conform to current standards because it used different antibodies.
Weak evidence suggests that AMH should be measured only in the early
follicular phase
The follicular phase, also known as the preovulatory phase or proliferative phase, is the phase of the estrous cycle (or, in primates for example, the menstrual cycle) during which follicles in the ovary mature from primary follicle to a full ...
because of variation over the
menstrual cycle
The menstrual cycle is a series of natural changes in hormone production and the structures of the uterus and ovaries of the female reproductive system that makes pregnancy possible. The ovarian cycle controls the production and release of eg ...
. Also, AMH levels decrease under current use of oral contraceptives and current
tobacco smoking
Tobacco smoking is the practice of burning tobacco and ingesting the resulting smoke. The smoke may be inhaled, as is done with cigarettes, or released from the mouth, as is generally done with pipes and cigars. The practice is believed to hav ...
.
Reference ranges
Reference range
In medicine and health-related fields, a reference range or reference interval is the range or the interval of values that is deemed normal for a physiological measurement in healthy persons (for example, the amount of creatinine in the blood ...
s for anti-Müllerian hormone, as estimated from
reference group
In the social sciences, social groups can be categorized based on the various group dynamics that define social organization.Boundless team.Types of Social Groups" ''Social Groups and Organization'' Open_educational_resources.html" ;"title="nowi ...
s in the
United States
The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
, are as follows:
Females:
Males:
AMH measurements may be less accurate if the person being measured is vitamin D deficient.
Note that males are born with higher AMH levels than females in order to initiate sexual differentiation, and in women, AMH levels decrease over time as fertility decreases as well.
Clinical usage
General fertility assessment
Comparison of an individual's AMH level with respect to average levels
is useful in fertility assessment, as it provides a guide to
ovarian reserve Ovarian reserve is a term that is used to determine the capacity of the ovary to provide egg cells that are capable of fertilization resulting in a healthy and successful pregnancy. With advanced maternal age, the number of egg cell that can be suc ...
. Because one's AMH level cannot be altered by any external factors, it helps identify whether a woman needs to consider either egg freezing or trying for a pregnancy sooner rather than later if their long-term future fertility is poor.
A higher level of anti-Müllerian hormone when tested in women in the general population has been found to have a positive correlation with natural fertility in women aged 30–44 aiming to conceive spontaneously, even after adjusting for age.
However, this correlation was not found in a comparable study of younger women (aged 20 to 30 years).
In vitro fertilization
AMH is a predictor for ovarian response in
''in vitro'' fertilization (IVF). Measurement of AMH supports clinical decisions, but alone it is not a strong predictor of IVF success. Women with lower levels of AMH are still able to get pregnant Additionally, AMH levels are used to estimate a woman's remaining egg supply.
According to
NICE guidelines of
''in vitro'' fertilization, an anti-Müllerian hormone level of less than or equal to 5.4 pmol/L (0.8 ng/mL) predicts a low response to gonadotrophin stimulation in IVF, while a level greater than or equal to 25.0 pmol/L (3.6 ng/mL) predicts a high response.
[Fertility: assessment and treatment for people with fertility problems](_blank)
NICE clinical guideline CG156 - Issued: February 2013 Other cut-off values found in the literature vary between 0.7 and 20 pmol/L (0.1 and 2.97 ng/mL) for low response to ovarian hyperstimulation.
Subsequently, higher AMH levels are associated with greater chance of live birth after IVF, even after adjusting for age.
AMH can thereby be used to rationalise the programme of ovulation induction and decisions about the number of embryos to transfer in assisted reproduction techniques to maximise pregnancy success rates whilst minimising the risk of
ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome
Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS) is a medical condition that can occur in some women who take fertility medication to stimulate egg growth, and in other women in sporadic cases. Most cases are mild, but rarely the condition is severe and c ...
(OHSS). AMH can predict an excessive response in ovarian hyperstimulation with a
sensitivity and specificity
In medicine and statistics, sensitivity and specificity mathematically describe the accuracy of a test that reports the presence or absence of a medical condition. If individuals who have the condition are considered "positive" and those who do ...
of 82% and 76%, respectively.
Measuring AMH alone may be misleading as high levels occur in conditions like
polycystic ovarian syndrome
Polycystic ovary syndrome, or polycystic ovarian syndrome, (PCOS) is the most common endocrine disorder in women of reproductive age. The name is a misnomer, as not all women with this condition develop cysts on their ovaries. The name origi ...
and therefore AMH levels should be considered in conjunction with a
transvaginal scan of the ovaries to assess
antral follicle count and ovarian volume.
Natural remedies
Studies into treatments to improve low ovarian reserve and low AMH levels have met with some success. Current best available evidence suggests that
DHEA improves ovarian function, increases pregnancy chances and, by reducing aneuploidy, lowers miscarriage rates. The studies into DHEA for low AMH show that a dose of 75 mg for a period of 16 weeks should be taken. Improvement of oocyte/embryo quality with DHEA supplementation potentially suggests a new concept of ovarian aging, where ovarian environments, but not oocytes themselves, age. DHEA has positive outcomes for women with AMH levels over 0.8 ng/mL or 5.7 pmol/L DHEA has no apparent effect on oocytes or ovarian environments under this range.
Studies have demonstrated a decline in CoQ levels with age. Studies on
CoQ10 supplementation in an aged animal model delayed depletion of ovarian reserve, restored oocyte mitochondrial gene expression, and improved mitochondrial activity.
Therefore, CoQ10 is used as a stimulator of the mitochondrial ATP formation in the electron transport chain when it’s naturally deficient in ovarian aged patients. Authors note that to replicate the 12–16 weeks of using CoQ10 supplements on mice to achieve these results would be the equivalent to a decade in humans.
Vitamin D
Vitamin D is a group of structurally related, fat-soluble compounds responsible for increasing intestinal absorption of calcium, magnesium, and phosphate, along with numerous other biological functions. In humans, the most important compo ...
is believed to play a role in AMH regulation. The AMH gene promoter contains a vitamin D response element that may cause vitamin D status to influence serum AMH levels. Women with levels of vitamin D of 267.8 ± 66.4 nmol/L show a 4 times better success rate with IVF procedure than those with low levels of 104.3 ± 21 nmol/L. Vitamin D deficiency should be considered when serum AMH levels are obtained for diagnosis.
Women with cancer
In women with cancer,
radiation therapy
Radiation therapy or radiotherapy (RT, RTx, or XRT) is a therapy, treatment using ionizing radiation, generally provided as part of treatment of cancer, cancer therapy to either kill or control the growth of malignancy, malignant cell (biology), ...
and
chemotherapy
Chemotherapy (often abbreviated chemo, sometimes CTX and CTx) is the type of cancer treatment that uses one or more anti-cancer drugs (list of chemotherapeutic agents, chemotherapeutic agents or alkylating agents) in a standard chemotherapy re ...
can damage the ovarian reserve. In such cases, a pre-treatment AMH is useful in predicting the long-term post-chemotherapy loss of ovarian function, which may indicate
fertility preservation strategies such as
oocyte cryopreservation.
A post-treatment AMH is associated with decreased fertility.
Granulosa cell tumors of the ovary secrete AMH, and AMH testing has a
sensitivity ranging between 76 and 93% in diagnosing such tumors.
AMH is also useful in diagnosing recurrence of granulosa cell tumors.
Neutering status in animals
In veterinary medicine, AMH measurements are used to determine neutering status in male and female dogs and cats. AMH levels can also be used to diagnose cases of ovarian remnant syndrome.
Biomarker of polycystic ovary syndrome
Polycystic ovary syndrome
Polycystic ovary syndrome, or polycystic ovarian syndrome, (PCOS) is the most common endocrine disorder in women of reproductive age. The name is a misnomer, as not all women with this condition develop cysts on their ovaries. The name origin ...
(PCOS) is an endocrine disorder most commonly found in women of reproductive age that is characterized by oligo- or
anovulation,
hyperandrogenism
Hyperandrogenism is a medical condition characterized by high levels of androgens. It is more common in women than men. Symptoms of hyperandrogenism may include acne, seborrhea, hair loss on the scalp, increased body or facial hair, and infre ...
, and
polycystic ovaries (PCO). This endocrine disorder increases AMH levels at nearly two to three times higher in women with PCOS than in normal type women. This is often attributed to the increased follicle count number characteristic of PCOS, indicating an increase in granulosa cells since they surround each individual egg. However, increased AMH levels have also been attributed not just to the increased number of follicles, but also to an increased amount of AMH produced per follicle. The high levels of androgens, characteristic of PCOS, also stimulate and provide feedback for increased production of AMH, as well.
In this way, AMH has been increasingly considered to be a tool or biomarker that can be used to diagnose or indicate PCOS.
Biomarker of Turner syndrome
Turner syndrome
Turner syndrome (TS), commonly known as 45,X, or 45,X0,Also written as 45,XO. is a chromosomal disorder in which cells of females have only one X chromosome instead of two, or are partially missing an X chromosome (sex chromosome monosomy) lea ...
is the most common sex chromosome-related inherited diseases in female around the world, with the incidence of 1 in 2000 live female births. One of the significant pathological features is the premature ovarian failure, leading to amenorrhea or even infertility. Follicle stimulating hormone and inhibin B were recommended to be monitored routinely by specialists to speculate the condition of ovary. Recently, anti-Müllerian hormone is advised as a more accurate biomarker for follicular development by several researchers. The biological function of anti-Müllerian hormone in ovary is to counteract the recruitment of primordial follicles triggered by FSH, reserving the follicle pool for further recruitment and ovulation. When menopause takes place, the serum concentration of anti-Müllerian hormone will be nearly undetectable amongst normal women. Thus, variations in AMH levels during childhood may theoretically predict the duration of any given girl's reproductive life span, assuming that the speed of the continuous follicle loss is comparable between individuals.
Potential future usage
AMH has been synthesized. Its ability to inhibit growth of tissue derived from the Müllerian ducts has raised hopes of usefulness in the treatment of a variety of medical conditions including
endometriosis
Endometriosis is a disease in which Tissue (biology), tissue similar to the endometrium, the lining of the uterus, grows in other places in the body, outside the uterus. It occurs in women and a limited number of other female mammals. Endomet ...
,
adenomyosis
Adenomyosis is a medical condition characterized by the growth of cells that proliferate on the inside of the uterus (endometrium) atypically located among the cells of the uterine wall (myometrium), as a result, thickening of the uterus occurs. ...
, and uterine
cancer
Cancer is a group of diseases involving Cell growth#Disorders, abnormal cell growth with the potential to Invasion (cancer), invade or Metastasis, spread to other parts of the body. These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread. Po ...
. Research is underway in several laboratories.
If there were more standardized AMH assays, it could potentially be used as a
biomarker
In biomedical contexts, a biomarker, or biological marker, is a measurable indicator of some biological state or condition. Biomarkers are often measured and evaluated using blood, urine, or soft tissues to examine normal biological processes, ...
of
polycystic ovary syndrome
Polycystic ovary syndrome, or polycystic ovarian syndrome, (PCOS) is the most common endocrine disorder in women of reproductive age. The name is a misnomer, as not all women with this condition develop cysts on their ovaries. The name origin ...
.
In mice, an increase in AMH has been shown to reduce the number of growing follicles and thus the overall size of the ovaries. This increase in AMH production reduces primary, secondary and antral follicles without reducing the number of primordial follicles suggesting a blockade of primordial follicle activation. This may provide a viable method of contraception which protects the ovarian reserve of oocytes during chemotherapy without extracting them from the body allowing the potential for natural reproduction later in life.
Names
The adjective ''Müllerian'' is written
either ''Müllerian'' or ''müllerian'', depending on the governing
style guide
A style guide is a set of standards for the writing, formatting, and design of documents. A book-length style guide is often called a style manual or a manual of style. A short style guide, typically ranging from several to several dozen page ...
; the derived term with the
prefix
A prefix is an affix which is placed before the stem of a word. Particularly in the study of languages, a prefix is also called a preformative, because it alters the form of the word to which it is affixed.
Prefixes, like other affixes, can b ...
''
anti-
Anti- is an American record label founded in 1999 as a sister label to Epitaph Records.
Founded by Andy Kaulkin, Anti- first gained attention by releasing Tom Waits's Grammy Award–winning '' Mule Variations'' in 1999. Other veteran recordin ...
'' is then ''anti-Müllerian'', ''anti-müllerian'', or ''antimüllerian''. The Müllerian ducts are named after
Johannes Peter Müller
Johannes Peter Müller (14 July 1801 – 28 April 1858) was a German physiologist, comparative anatomist, ichthyologist, and herpetologist, known not only for his discoveries but also for his ability to synthesize knowledge. The paramesonephri ...
.
A list of the names that have been used for the antimüllerian hormone is as follows. For the sake of simplicity, this list ignores some
orthographic variations; for example, it gives only one row for "Müllerian-inhibiting hormone", although there are four acceptable stylings thereof (capital M or lowercase m, hyphen or space).
See also
*
Alfred Jost
Alfred Jost (1916–1991) was a French endocrinologist, and an early researcher in the field of fetal endocrinology. He is known for his discovery of the Müllerian inhibitor, now called anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) or Müllerian inhibitin ...
- first postulated the existence of a non-testesterone substance that suppressed Müllerian hormone
*
Nathalie Josso - discovered and named AMH
*
Anti-Müllerian hormone receptor
*
Freemartin - involvement of anti-Müllerian hormone in cattle twins of mixed sex
*
Persistent Müllerian duct syndrome
Persistent Müllerian duct syndrome (PMDS) is the presence of Müllerian duct derivatives (fallopian tubes, uterus, and/or the upper part of the vagina) in what would be considered a genetically and otherwise physically normal male. In humans, ...
(PMDS)
*
Sexual differentiation
References
{{DEFAULTSORT:Anti-Mullerian Hormone
Animal developmental biology
Fish hormones
Hormones of the embryo
Biomarkers