Georges André Malraux ( ; ; 3 November 1901 – 23 November 1976) was a French novelist, art theorist, and
minister of cultural affairs. Malraux's novel ''La Condition Humaine'' (''
Man's Fate
''Man's Fate'' (French: ''La Condition humaine'', "The Human Condition") is a 1933 novel written by André Malraux about the failed communist insurrection in Shanghai in 1927, and the existential quandaries facing a diverse group of people asso ...
'') (1933) won the
Prix Goncourt
The Prix Goncourt ( , "The Goncourt Prize") is a prize in French literature, given by the académie Goncourt to the author of "the best and most imaginative prose work of the year". The prize carries a symbolic reward of only 10 euros, but resul ...
. He was appointed by President
Charles de Gaulle
Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle (22 November 18909 November 1970) was a French general and statesman who led the Free France, Free French Forces against Nazi Germany in World War II and chaired the Provisional Government of the French Re ...
as information minister (1945–46) and subsequently as France's first cultural affairs minister during de Gaulle's presidency (1959–1969).
Early years
Malraux was born in Paris in 1901, the son of Fernand-Georges Malraux (1875–1930) and Berthe Félicie Lamy (1877–1932). His parents separated in 1905 and eventually divorced. There are suggestions that Malraux's paternal grandfather committed suicide in 1909.
["Biographie détaillée"]
, André Malraux Website, accessed 3 September 2010
Malraux was raised by his mother, his maternal aunt Marie Lamy and his maternal grandmother, Adrienne Lamy (née Romagna), who had a grocery store in the small town of
Bondy (Seine-Saint-Denis).
[ His father, a stockbroker, died by suicide in 1930 after the international crash of the stock market and onset of the ]Great Depression
The Great Depression was a severe global economic downturn from 1929 to 1939. The period was characterized by high rates of unemployment and poverty, drastic reductions in industrial production and international trade, and widespread bank and ...
.
From his childhood, associates noticed that André had marked nervousness and motor and vocal tics. The recent biographer Olivier Todd, who published a book on Malraux in 2005, suggests that he had Tourette syndrome
Tourette syndrome (TS), or simply Tourette's, is a common neurodevelopmental disorder that begins in childhood or adolescence. It is characterized by multiple movement (motor) tics and at least one vocal (phonic) tic. Common tics are blinkin ...
, although that has not been confirmed. The young Malraux left formal education early, but he followed his curiosity through the booksellers and museums in Paris, and explored the city's rich libraries as well.
Career
Early years
Malraux's first published work, an article entitled "The Origins of Cubist Poetry", appeared in Florent Fels' magazine ''Action'' in 1920. This was followed in 1921 by three semi-surrealist tales, one of which, "Paper Moons", was illustrated by Fernand Léger. Malraux also frequented the Parisian artistic and literary milieux of the period, meeting figures such as Demetrios Galanis, Max Jacob, François Mauriac
François Charles Mauriac (; ; 11 October 1885 – 1 September 1970) was a French novelist, dramatist, critic, poet, and journalist, a member of the'' Académie française'' (from 1933), and laureate of the 1952 Nobel Prize in Literature, Nobel Pr ...
, Guy de Pourtalès, André Salmon
André Salmon (4 October 1881, Paris – 12 March 1969, Sanary-sur-Mer) was a French poet, art critic and writer. He was one of the early defenders of Cubism, with Guillaume Apollinaire and Maurice Raynal.
Biography
André Salmon was born i ...
, Jean Cocteau
Jean Maurice Eugène Clément Cocteau ( , ; ; 5 July 1889 11 October 1963) was a French poet, playwright, novelist, designer, film director, visual artist and critic. He was one of the foremost avant-garde artists of the 20th-c ...
, Raymond Radiguet
Raymond Radiguet (; 18 June 1903 – 12 December 1923) was a French novelist and poet whose two novels were noted for their explicit themes, and unique style and tone.
Early life
Radiguet was born in Saint-Maur-des-Fossés, Saint-Maur, Val-de-M ...
, Florent Fels, Pascal Pia, Marcel Arland, Edmond Jaloux, and Pierre Mac Orlan. In 1922, Malraux married Clara Goldschmidt. Malraux and his first wife separated in 1938 but did not divorce until 1947. His daughter from this marriage, Florence (b. 1933), married the filmmaker Alain Resnais. By the age of twenty, Malraux was reading the work of the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche
Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (15 October 1844 – 25 August 1900) was a German philosopher. He began his career as a classical philology, classical philologist, turning to philosophy early in his academic career. In 1869, aged 24, Nietzsche bec ...
who was to remain a major influence on him for the rest of his life.[Batchelor, R "The Presence of Nietzsche in André Malraux" pages 218-229 from ''Journal of European Studies'', Issue 3, 1973 page 218.] Malraux was especially impressed with Nietzsche's theory of a world in continuous turmoil and his statement "that the individual himself is still the most recent creation" who was completely responsible for all of his actions. Most of all, Malraux embraced Nietzsche's theory of the ''Übermensch
The ( , ; 'Overman' or 'Superman') is a concept in the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche. In his 1883 book, '' Thus Spoke Zarathustra'' (), Nietzsche has his character Zarathustra posit the as a goal for humanity to set for itself. The repre ...
'', the heroic, exalted man who would create great works of art and whose will would allow him to triumph over anything.
Indochina
T. E. Lawrence, aka "Lawrence of Arabia", has a reputation in France as the man who was supposedly responsible for France's troubles in Syria in the 1920s. An exception was Malraux who regarded Lawrence as a role model, the intellectual-cum-man-of-action and the romantic, enigmatic hero. Malraux often admitted to having a "certain fascination" with Lawrence, and it has been suggested that Malraux's sudden decision to abandon the Surrealist literary scene in Paris for adventure in the Far East was prompted by a desire to emulate Lawrence who began his career as an archaeologist in the Ottoman Empire excavating the ruins of the ancient city of Carchemish in the ''vilayet'' of Aleppo in what is now modern Syria. As Lawrence had first made his reputation in the Near East digging up the ruins of an ancient civilization, it was only natural that Malraux should go to the Far East to likewise make his reputation in Asia digging up ancient ruins. Lawrence considered himself a writer first and foremost while also presenting himself as a man of action, the ''Nietzschean'' hero who triumphs over both the environment and men through the force of his will, a persona that Malraux consciously imitated. Malraux often wrote about Lawrence, whom he described admiringly as a man with a need for "the absolute", for whom no compromises were possible and for whom going all the way was the only way. Along the same lines, Malraux argued that Lawrence should not be remembered mainly as a guerrilla leader in the Arab Revolt and the British liaison officer with the Emir Faisal, but rather as a romantic, lyrical writer as writing was Lawrence's first passion, which also described Malraux very well.[Roak, Denis "Malraux and T. E. Lawrence" pages 218-224 from ''The Modern Language Review'', Vol. 61, No. 2, April 1966 from page 223.] Although Malraux courted fame through his novels, poems and essays on art in combination with his adventures and political activism, he was an intensely shy and private man who kept to himself, maintaining a distance between himself and others.[Langlois, Walter "André Malraux (1901–1976)" pages 683-687 from ''The French Review'', Vol. 50, No. 5, April 1977 page 685.] Malraux's reticence led his first wife Clara to later say she barely knew him during their marriage.
In 1923, aged 22, Malraux and Clara left for the French Protectorate of Cambodia
The French protectorate of Cambodia (; ) refers to the Kingdom of Cambodia when it was a French protectorate within French Indochina, a collection of Southeast Asian protectorates within the French colonial empire. The protectorate was establi ...
. Angkor Wat
Angkor Wat (; , "City/Capital of Wat, Temples") is a Buddhism and Hinduism, Hindu-Buddhist temple complex in Cambodia. Located on a site measuring within the ancient Khmer Empire, Khmer capital city of Angkor, it was originally constructed ...
is a huge 12th century temple situated in the old capital of the Khmer Empire
The Khmer Empire was an empire in Southeast Asia, centered on Hydraulic empire, hydraulic cities in what is now northern Cambodia. Known as Kambuja (; ) by its inhabitants, it grew out of the former civilization of Chenla and lasted from 802 t ...
. Angkor ( Yasodharapura) was "the world's largest urban settlement" in the 11th and 12th centuries supported by an elaborate network of canals and roads across mainland Southeast Asia before decaying and falling into the jungle. The discovery of the ruins of Angkor Wat by Westerners (the Khmers had never fully abandoned the temples of Angkor) in the jungle by the French explorer Henri Mouhot in 1861 had given Cambodia a romantic reputation in France, as the home of the vast, mysterious ruins of the Khmer empire. Upon reaching Cambodia, Malraux, Clara and friend Louis Chevasson undertook an expedition into unexplored areas of the former imperial settlements in search of hidden temples, hoping to find artifacts and items that could be sold to art collectors and museums. At about the same time archaeologists, with the approval of the French government, were removing large numbers of items from Angkor - many of which are now housed in the Guimet Museum
The Guimet Museum (full name in ; ''MNAAG''; ) is a Parisian art museum with one of the largest collections of Asian art outside of Asia that includes items from Cambodia, Thailand, Viet Nam, Tibet, India, and Nepal, among other countries.
Found ...
in Paris. On his return, Malraux was arrested and charged by French colonial authorities for removing a ''bas-relief
Relief is a sculptural method in which the sculpted pieces remain attached to a solid background of the same material. The term ''relief'' is from the Latin verb , to raise (). To create a sculpture in relief is to give the impression that th ...
'' from the exquisite '' Banteay Srei'' temple. Although he was guilty, his arrest and imprisonment were deemed inappropriate – for the crime was of no consequence. Clara, his wife, started a campaign for his acquittal and a number of notable arts and literary figures signed a petition defending Malraux: among them were François Mauriac
François Charles Mauriac (; ; 11 October 1885 – 1 September 1970) was a French novelist, dramatist, critic, poet, and journalist, a member of the'' Académie française'' (from 1933), and laureate of the 1952 Nobel Prize in Literature, Nobel Pr ...
, André Breton
André Robert Breton (; ; 19 February 1896 – 28 September 1966) was a French writer and poet, the co-founder, leader, and principal theorist of surrealism. His writings include the first ''Surrealist Manifesto'' (''Manifeste du surréalisme'') ...
and André Gide. Malraux had his sentence reduced to a year, and then suspended.
Malraux's experiences in Indochina
Mainland Southeast Asia (historically known as Indochina and the Indochinese Peninsula) is the continental portion of Southeast Asia. It lies east of the Indian subcontinent and south of Mainland China and is bordered by the Indian Ocean to th ...
led him to become highly critical of the French colonial authorities there. In 1925, with Paul Monin, a progressive lawyer, he helped to organize the Young Annam League and founded a newspaper '' L'Indochine'' to champion Vietnamese independence. After falling foul of the French authorities, Malraux claimed to have crossed over to China where he was involved with the Kuomintang
The Kuomintang (KMT) is a major political party in the Republic of China (Taiwan). It was the one party state, sole ruling party of the country Republic of China (1912-1949), during its rule from 1927 to 1949 in Mainland China until Retreat ...
and their then allies, the Chinese Communists, in their struggle against the warlords in the Great Northern Expedition before they turned on each other in 1927, which marked the beginning of the Chinese Civil War that was to last on and off until 1949. In fact, Malraux did not first visit China until 1931 and he did not see the bloody suppression of the Chinese Communists by the Kuomintang in 1927 first-hand as he often implied that he did, although he did do much reading on the subject.
Asian novels
On his return to France, Malraux published '' The Temptation of the West'' (1926). The work was in the form of an exchange of letters between a Westerner and an Asian, comparing aspects of the two cultures. This was followed by his first novel ''The Conquerors'' (1928), and then by ''The Royal Way'' (1930) which reflected some of his Cambodian experiences. The American literary critic Dennis Roak described ''Les Conquérants'' as influenced by ''The Seven Pillars of Wisdom'' as it was narrated in the present tense "...with its staccato snatches of dialogue and the images of sound and sight, light and darkness, which create a compellingly haunting atmosphere." ''The Conquerors'' was set in the summer of 1925 against the backdrop of the general strike called by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and Kuomintang in Hong Kong and Canton, the novel concerns political intrigue amongst the "anti-imperialist" camp.[Harris, Geoffrey ''André Malraux: A Reassessment'', London: Macmillan 1995 page 45.] The novel is narrated by an unnamed Frenchman who travels from Saigon to Hong Kong to Canton to meet an old friend named Garine who is a professional revolutionary working with Mikhail Borodin, who in real life was the Comintern's principal agent in China. The novel alternates between depictions of Chinese nationalist militancy and British imperial anxieties. The Kuomintang are depicted rather unflatteringly as conservative Chinese nationalists uninterested in social reform, another faction is led by Hong, a Chinese assassin committed to revolutionary violence for the sake of violence, and only the Communists are portrayed relatively favorably.[Harris, Geoffrey ''André Malraux: A Reassessment'', London: Macmillan 1995 page 46.] Much of the dramatic tension between the novel concerns a three-way struggle between the hero, Garine and Borodin who is only interested in using the revolution in China to achieve Soviet foreign policy goals. The fact that the European characters are considerably better drawn than the Asian characters reflected Malraux's understanding of China at the time as more of an exotic place where Europeans played out their own dramas rather than a place to be understood in its own right. Initially, Malraux's writings on Asia reflected the influence of Orientalism
In art history, literature, and cultural studies, Orientalism is the imitation or depiction of aspects of the Eastern world (or "Orient") by writers, designers, and artists from the Western world. Orientalist painting, particularly of the Middle ...
presenting the Far East as strange, exotic, decadent, mysterious, sensuous and violent, but Malraux's picture of China grew somewhat more humanized and understanding as Malraux disregarded his Orientalist and Eurocentric viewpoint in favor of one that presented the Chinese as fellow human beings.
The second of Malraux's Asian novels was the semi-autobiographical ''La Voie Royale'' which relates the adventures of a Frenchman Claude Vannec who together with his Danish friend Perken head down the royal road of the title into the jungle of Cambodia
Cambodia, officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. It is bordered by Thailand to the northwest, Laos to the north, and Vietnam to the east, and has a coastline ...
with the intention of stealing bas-relief sculptures from the ruins of Hindu temples. After many perilous adventures, Vannec and Perken are captured by hostile tribesmen and find an old friend of Perken's, Grabot, who had already been captured for some time.[Harris, Geoffrey ''André Malraux: A Reassessment'', London: Macmillan 1995 page 70.] Grabot, a deserter from the French Foreign Legion had been reduced to nothing as his captors blinded him and left him tied to a stake starving, a stark picture of human degradation. The three Europeans escape, but Perken is wounded and dies of an infection. Through ostensibly an adventure novel, ''La Voie Royale'' is in fact a philosophical novel concerned with existential questions about the meaning of life. The book was a failure at the time as the publishers marketed it as a stirring adventure story set in far-off, exotic, Cambodia which confused many readers who, instead, found a novel pondering deep philosophical questions.
In his Asian novels Malraux used Asia as a stick to beat Europe with as he argued that after World War I the ideal of progress of a Europe getting better and better for the general advancement of humanity was dead.[Hérubel, Jean-Pierre "André Malraux and the French Ministry of Cultural Affairs: A Bibliographic Essay" pages 556-575 from ''Libraries & Culture'', Vol. 35, No. 4 Fall 2000 page 561] As such, Malraux now argued that European civilization was faced with a ''Nietzschean'' void, a twilight world, without God or progress, in which the old values had proven worthless and a sense of spirituality that had once existed was gone. An agnostic, but an intensely spiritual man, Malraux maintained that what was needed was an "aesthetic spirituality" in which love of 'Art' and 'Civilization' would allow one to appreciate ''le sacré'' in life, a sensibility that was both tragic and awe-inspiring as one surveyed all of the cultural treasures of the world, a mystical sense of humanity's place in a universe that was as astonishingly beautiful as it was mysterious. Malraux argued that as death is inevitable and in a world devoid of meaning, which thus was "absurd", only art could offer meaning in an "absurd" world.[Sypher, Wylie "Aesthetic of Doom: Malraux" pages 146-165 from ''Salmagundi'', No. 68/69, Fall 1985-Winter 1986 page 148.] Malraux argued that art transcended time as art allowed one to connect with the past, and the very act of appreciating art was itself an act of art as the love of art was part of a continuation of endless artistic metamorphosis that constantly created something new. Malraux argued that as different types of art went in and out of style, the revival of a style was a metamorphosis as art could never be appreciated in exactly the same way as it was in the past. As art was timeless, it conquered time and death as artworks lived on after the death of the artist. The American literary critic Jean-Pierre Hérubel wrote that Malraux never entirely worked out a coherent philosophy as his mystical ''Weltanschauung'' (world view) was based more upon emotion than logic. In Malraux's viewpoint, of all the professions, the artist was the most important as artists were the explorers and voyagers of the human spirit, as artistic creation was the highest form of human achievement for only art could illustrate humanity's relationship with the universe. As Malraux wrote, "there is something far greater than history and it is the persistence of genius". Hérubel argued that it is fruitless to attempt to criticize Malraux for his lack of methodological consistency as Malraux cultivated a poetical sensibility, a certain lyrical style, that appealed more to the heart than to the brain.[Hérubel, Jean-Pierre "André Malraux and the French Ministry of Cultural Affairs: A Bibliographic Essay" pages 556-575 from ''Libraries & Culture'', Vol. 35, No. 4 Fall 2000 page 562] Malraux was a proud Frenchman, but he also saw himself as a citizen of the world, a man who loved the cultural achievements of all of the civilizations across the globe. At the same time, Malraux criticized those intellectuals who wanted to retreat into the ivory tower, instead arguing that it was the duty of intellectuals to participate and fight (both metaphorically and literally) in the great political causes of the day, that the only truly great causes were the ones that one was willing to die for.
In 1933 Malraux published ''Man's Fate
''Man's Fate'' (French: ''La Condition humaine'', "The Human Condition") is a 1933 novel written by André Malraux about the failed communist insurrection in Shanghai in 1927, and the existential quandaries facing a diverse group of people asso ...
'' (''La Condition Humaine''), a novel about the 1927 failed Communist rebellion in Shanghai. Despite Malraux's attempts to present his Chinese characters as more three dimensional and developed than he did in ''Les Conquérants'', his biographer Oliver Todd wrote he could not "quite break clear of a conventional idea of China with coolies, bamboo shoots, opium smokers, destitutes, and prostitutes", which were the standard French stereotypes of China at the time. The work was awarded the 1933 Prix Goncourt
The Prix Goncourt ( , "The Goncourt Prize") is a prize in French literature, given by the académie Goncourt to the author of "the best and most imaginative prose work of the year". The prize carries a symbolic reward of only 10 euros, but resul ...
. After the breakdown of his marriage with Clara, Malraux lived with journalist and novelist Josette Clotis, starting in 1933. Malraux and Josette had two sons: Pierre-Gauthier (1940–1961) and Vincent (1943–1961). During 1944, while Malraux was fighting in Alsace
Alsace (, ; ) is a cultural region and a territorial collectivity in the Grand Est administrative region of northeastern France, on the west bank of the upper Rhine, next to Germany and Switzerland. In January 2021, it had a population of 1,9 ...
, Josette died, aged 34, when she slipped while boarding a train. His two sons died together in 1961 in an automobile accident. The car they were driving had been given them by Vincent's girlfriend, the wealthy Clara Saint.
Searching for lost cities
On 22 February 1934, Malraux together with Édouard Corniglion-Molinier embarked on a much publicized expedition to find the lost capital of the Queen of Sheba
The Queen of Sheba, also known as Bilqis in Arabic and as Makeda in Geʽez, is a figure first mentioned in the Hebrew Bible. In the original story, she brings a caravan of valuable gifts for Solomon, the fourth King of Israel and Judah. This a ...
mentioned in the Old Testament.[Harris, Geoffrey ''André Malraux: A Reassessment'', London: Macmillan 1995 page 118.] Saudi Arabia and Yemen were both remote, dangerous places that few Westerners visited at the time, and what made the expedition especially dangerous was while Malraux was searching for the lost cities of Sheba, King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia invaded Yemen, and the ensuing Saudi–Yemeni war greatly complicated Malraux's search. After several weeks of flying over the deserts in Saudi Arabia and Yemen, Malraux returned to France to announce that the ruins he found up in the mountains of Yemen were the capital of the Queen of Sheba. Though Malraux's claim is not generally accepted by archeologists, the expedition bolstered Malraux's fame and provided the material for several of his later essays.
Spanish Civil War
During the 1930s, Malraux was active in the anti-fascist Popular Front in France. At the beginning of the Spanish Civil War
The Spanish Civil War () was a military conflict fought from 1936 to 1939 between the Republican faction (Spanish Civil War), Republicans and the Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War), Nationalists. Republicans were loyal to the Left-wing p ...
he joined the Republican forces in Spain, serving in and helping to organize the small Spanish Republican Air Force. Curtis Cate, one of his biographers, writes that Malraux was slightly wounded twice during efforts to stop the Battle of Madrid
Madrid ( ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in Spain, most populous municipality of Spain. It has almost 3.5 million inhabitants and a Madrid metropolitan area, metropolitan area population of approximately 7 million. It i ...
in 1936 as the Spanish Nationalists attempted to take Madrid, but the historian Hugh Thomas argues otherwise.
The French government sent aircraft to Republican forces in Spain, but they were obsolete by the standards of 1936. They were mainly Potez 540
The Potez 540 was a French multi-role aircraft of the 1930s. Designed and built by Potez, it served with the French Air Force as a Aerial reconnaissance, reconnaissance bomber, also serving with the Spanish Republican Air Force during the Spanish ...
bombers and Dewoitine D.372 fighters. The slow Potez 540 rarely survived three months of air missions, flying at 160 knots against enemy fighters flying at more than 250 knots. Few of the fighters proved to be airworthy, and they were delivered intentionally without guns or gunsights. The Ministry of Defense of France had feared that modern types of planes would easily be captured by the German Condor Legion fighting with General Francisco Franco
Francisco Franco Bahamonde (born Francisco Paulino Hermenegildo Teódulo Franco Bahamonde; 4 December 1892 – 20 November 1975) was a Spanish general and dictator who led the Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War), Nationalist forces i ...
, and the lesser models were a way of maintaining official "neutrality". The planes were surpassed by more modern types introduced by the end of 1936 on both sides.
The Republic circulated photos of Malraux standing next to some Potez 540 bombers suggesting that France was on their side, at a time when France and the United Kingdom had officially declared neutrality. But Malraux's commitment to the Republicans was personal, like that of many other foreign volunteers, and there was never any suggestion that he was there at the behest of the French Government. Malraux himself was not a pilot, and never claimed to be one, but his leadership qualities seem to have been recognized because he was made Squadron Leader of the 'España' squadron. Acutely aware of the Republicans' inferior armaments, of which outdated aircraft were just one example, he toured the United States to raise funds for the cause. In 1937 he published '' L'Espoir'' (Man's Hope), a novel influenced by his Spanish war experiences. In July 1937 he attended the Second International Writers' Congress, the purpose of which was to discuss the attitude of intellectuals to the war, held in Valencia
Valencia ( , ), formally València (), is the capital of the Province of Valencia, province and Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Valencian Community, the same name in Spain. It is located on the banks of the Turia (r ...
, Barcelona
Barcelona ( ; ; ) is a city on the northeastern coast of Spain. It is the capital and largest city of the autonomous community of Catalonia, as well as the second-most populous municipality of Spain. With a population of 1.6 million within c ...
and Madrid
Madrid ( ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in Spain, most populous municipality of Spain. It has almost 3.5 million inhabitants and a Madrid metropolitan area, metropolitan area population of approximately 7 million. It i ...
and attended by many writers including Ernest Hemingway
Ernest Miller Hemingway ( ; July 21, 1899 – July 2, 1961) was an American novelist, short-story writer and journalist. Known for an economical, understated style that influenced later 20th-century writers, he has been romanticized fo ...
, Stephen Spender
Sir Stephen Harold Spender (28 February 1909 – 16 July 1995) was an English poet, novelist and essayist whose work concentrated on themes of social injustice and the class struggle. He was appointed U.S. Poet Laureate Consultant in Poetry ...
and Pablo Neruda.
Malraux's participation in major historical events such as the Spanish Civil War inevitably brought him determined adversaries as well as strong supporters, and the resulting polarization of opinion has colored, and rendered questionable, much that has been written about his life. Fellow combatants praised Malraux's leadership and sense of camaraderie While André Marty of the Comintern
The Communist International, abbreviated as Comintern and also known as the Third International, was a political international which existed from 1919 to 1943 and advocated world communism. Emerging from the collapse of the Second Internatio ...
called him as an "adventurer" for his high profile and demands on the Spanish Republican government.[Beevor, p. 140] The British historian Antony Beevor also claims that "Malraux stands out, not just because he was a mythomaniac in his claims of martial heroism – in Spain and later in the French Resistance – but because he cynically exploited the opportunity for intellectual heroism in the legend of the Spanish Republic."
In any case, Malraux's participation in events such as the Spanish Civil War has tended to distract attention from his important literary achievement. Malraux saw himself first and foremost as a writer and thinker (and not a "man of action" as biographers so often portray him) but his extremely eventful life – a far cry from the stereotype of the French intellectual confined to his study or a Left Bank café – has tended to obscure this fact. As a result, his literary works, including his important works on the theory of art, have received less attention than one might expect, especially in Anglophone countries.
World War II
At the beginning of the Second World War
World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
, Malraux joined the French Army
The French Army, officially known as the Land Army (, , ), is the principal Army, land warfare force of France, and the largest component of the French Armed Forces; it is responsible to the Government of France, alongside the French Navy, Fren ...
. He was captured in 1940 during the Battle of France
The Battle of France (; 10 May – 25 June 1940), also known as the Western Campaign (), the French Campaign (, ) and the Fall of France, during the Second World War was the Nazi Germany, German invasion of the Low Countries (Belgium, Luxembour ...
but escaped and later joined the French Resistance
The French Resistance ( ) was a collection of groups that fought the German military administration in occupied France during World War II, Nazi occupation and the Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy#France, collaborationist Vic ...
. In 1944, he was captured by the Gestapo
The (, ), Syllabic abbreviation, abbreviated Gestapo (), was the official secret police of Nazi Germany and in German-occupied Europe.
The force was created by Hermann Göring in 1933 by combining the various political police agencies of F ...
. Detained in the Saint-Michel prison, he narrowly escaped deportation thanks to the liberation of Toulouse
Toulouse (, ; ; ) is a city in southern France, the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Haute-Garonne department and of the Occitania (administrative region), Occitania region. The city is on the banks of the Garonne, River Garonne, from ...
by Allied forces on August 19, 1944. He later commanded the Brigade Alsace-Lorraine in defence of Strasbourg
Strasbourg ( , ; ; ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture and largest city of the Grand Est Regions of France, region of Geography of France, eastern France, in the historic region of Alsace. It is the prefecture of the Bas-Rhin Departmen ...
and in the attack on Stuttgart
Stuttgart (; ; Swabian German, Swabian: ; Alemannic German, Alemannic: ; Italian language, Italian: ; ) is the capital city, capital and List of cities in Baden-Württemberg by population, largest city of the States of Germany, German state of ...
.
André's half-brother, Claude, a Special Operations Executive
Special Operations Executive (SOE) was a British organisation formed in 1940 to conduct espionage, sabotage and reconnaissance in German-occupied Europe and to aid local Resistance during World War II, resistance movements during World War II. ...
(SOE) agent, was also captured by the Germans, and executed at Gross-Rosen concentration camp in 1944.
Otto Abetz was the German Ambassador, and produced a series of "black lists" of authors forbidden to be read, circulated or sold in Nazi occupied France. These included anything written by a Jew, a communist, an Anglo-Saxon or anyone else who was anti-Germanic or anti-fascist. Louis Aragon and André Malraux were both on these "Otto Lists" of forbidden authors.
After the war, Malraux was awarded the '' Médaille de la Résistance'' and the . The British awarded him the Distinguished Service Order
The Distinguished Service Order (DSO) is a Military awards and decorations, military award of the United Kingdom, as well as formerly throughout the Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth, awarded for operational gallantry for highly successful ...
, for his work with British liaison officers in Corrèze
Corrèze (; ) is a département in France, named after the river Corrèze which runs through it. Although its prefecture is Tulle, its most populated city is Brive-la-Gaillarde. Corrèze is located in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region, on the bo ...
, Dordogne and Lot. After Dordogne was liberated, Malraux led a battalion of former resistance fighters to Alsace-Lorraine, where they fought alongside the First Army.
During the war, he worked on his last novel, ''The Struggle with the Angel'', the title drawn from the story of the Biblical Jacob
Jacob, later known as Israel, is a Hebrew patriarch of the Abrahamic religions. He first appears in the Torah, where he is described in the Book of Genesis as a son of Isaac and Rebecca. Accordingly, alongside his older fraternal twin brother E ...
. The manuscript was destroyed by the Gestapo after his capture in 1944. A surviving first section, titled ''The Walnut Trees of Altenburg'', was published after the war.
After the war
Shortly after the war, General Charles de Gaulle
Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle (22 November 18909 November 1970) was a French general and statesman who led the Free France, Free French Forces against Nazi Germany in World War II and chaired the Provisional Government of the French Re ...
appointed Malraux as his Minister for Information (1945–1946). Soon after, he completed his first book on art, ''The Psychology of Art'', published in three volumes (1947–1949). The work was subsequently revised and republished in one volume as ''The Voices of Silence'' (''Les Voix du Silence''), the first part of which has been published separately as ''The Museum without Walls''. Other important works on the theory of art were to follow. These included the three-volume ''Metamorphosis of the Gods'' and ''Precarious Man and Literature'', the latter published posthumously in 1977. In 1948, Malraux married a second time, to Marie-Madeleine Lioux, a concert pianist and the widow of his half-brother, Roland Malraux. They separated in 1966. Subsequently, Malraux lived with Louise de Vilmorin in the Vilmorin family château at Verrières-le-Buisson, Essonne, a suburb southwest of Paris. Vilmorin was best known as a writer of delicate but mordant tales, often set in aristocratic or artistic milieu. Her most famous novel was ''Madame de...'', published in 1951, which was adapted into the celebrated film '' The Earrings of Madame de...'' (1953), directed by Max Ophüls and starring Charles Boyer, Danielle Darrieux and Vittorio de Sica. Vilmorin's other works included ''Juliette'', ''La lettre dans un taxi'', ''Les belles amours'', ''Saintes-Unefois'', and ''Intimités''. Her letters to Jean Cocteau were published after the death of both correspondents. After Louise's death, Malraux spent his final years with her relative, Sophie de Vilmorin.
In 1957, Malraux published the first volume of his trilogy on art entitled ''The Metamorphosis of the Gods''. The second two volumes (not yet translated into English) were published shortly before he died in 1976. They are entitled ''L'Irréel'' and ''L'Intemporel'' and discuss artistic developments from the Renaissance to modern times. Malraux also initiated the series '' Arts of Mankind'', an ambitious survey of world art that generated more than thirty large, illustrated volumes.
When de Gaulle returned to the French presidency in 1958, Malraux became France's first Minister of Cultural Affairs, a post he held from 1958 to 1969. On 7 February 1962, Malraux was the target of an assassination attempt by the ''Organisation armée secrète
The ''Organisation armée secrète'' (OAS, "Secret Army Organisation") was a far-right dissident French paramilitary and terrorist organisation during the Algerian War, founded in 1961 by Raoul Salan, Pierre Lagaillarde and Jean-Jacques S ...
'' (OAS), which set off a bomb to his apartment building that failed to kill its intended target, but did leave a four-year-old girl who was living in the adjoining apartment blinded by the shrapnel. Ironically, Malraux was a lukewarm supporter of de Gaulle's decision to grant independence to Algeria, but the OAS was not aware of this, and had decided to assassinate Malraux as a high-profile minister.
On 23 May 1961, André Malraux's two sons, Gauthier and Vincent, were killed in a car accident.
Among many initiatives, Malraux launched an innovative (and subsequently widely imitated) program to clean the blackened façades of notable French buildings, revealing the natural stone underneath. He also created a number of ''maisons de la culture'' in provincial cities and worked to preserve France's national heritage by promoting industrial archaeology
Industrial archaeology (IA) is the systematic study of material evidence associated with the Industry (manufacturing), industrial past. This evidence, collectively referred to as industrial heritage, includes buildings, machinery, artifacts, si ...
.[Hérubel, Jean-Pierre "André Malraux and the French Ministry of Cultural Affairs: A Bibliographic Essay" pages 556-575 from ''Libraries & Culture'', Vol. 35, No. 4 Fall 2000 page 557] An intellectual who took the arts very seriously, Malraux saw his mission as Culture Minister to preserve France's heritage and to improve the cultural levels of the masses. Malraux's efforts to promote French culture mostly concerned renewing old or building new libraries, art galleries, museums, theatres, opera houses, and ''maisons de la culture'' (centres built in provincial cities that were a mixture of a library, art gallery and theatre). In 1964 he created the Inventaire général du patrimoine culturel to record all goods based on archival sources created by human kind throughout France. Film, television and music took less of Malraux's time, and the changing demographics caused by immigration from the Third World stymied his efforts to promote French high culture, as many immigrants from Muslim and African nations did not find French high culture that compelling. A passionate bibliophile, Malraux built up a huge collection of books both as a cultural minister for the nation and as a man for himself.
Malraux was an outspoken supporter of the Bangladesh liberation movement during the 1971 Liberation War of Bangladesh
The Bangladesh Liberation War (, ), also known as the Bangladesh War of Independence, was an War, armed conflict sparked by the rise of the Bengali nationalism, Bengali nationalist and self-determination movement in East Pakistan, which res ...
and despite his age seriously considered joining the struggle. When Indira Gandhi
Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi (Given name, ''née'' Nehru; 19 November 1917 – 31 October 1984) was an Indian politician and stateswoman who served as the Prime Minister of India, prime minister of India from 1966 to 1977 and again from 1980 un ...
came to Paris in November 1971, there was extensive discussion between them about the situation in Bangladesh.
During this post-war period, Malraux published a series of semi-autobiographical works, the first entitled ''Antimémoires'' (1967). A later volume in the series, ''Lazarus'', is a reflection on death occasioned by his experiences during a serious illness. ''La Tête d'obsidienne'' (1974) (translated as ''Picasso's Mask'') concerns Picasso, and visual art more generally. In his last book, published posthumously in 1977, ''L'Homme précaire et la littérature'', Malraux propounded the theory that there was a ''bibliothèque imaginaire'' where writers created works that influenced subsequent writers much as painters learned their craft by studying the old masters; once they have understood the work of the old masters, writers would sally forth with the knowledge gained to create new works that added to the growing and never-ending ''bibliothèque imaginaire''. (See also musée imaginaire). An elitist who appreciated what he saw as the high culture of all the nations of the world, Malraux was especially interested in art history and archaeology, and saw his duty as a writer to share what he knew with ordinary people. An aesthete, Malraux believed that art was spiritually enriching and necessary for humanity.
Malraux was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature
The Nobel Prize in Literature, here meaning ''for'' Literature (), is a Swedish literature prize that is awarded annually, since 1901, to an author from any country who has, in the words of the will of Swedish industrialist Alfred Nobel, "in ...
on 32 occasions. He was an annual contender for the prize in the 1950s and 1960s, but was never awarded. In 1969 he was the main candidate considered for the prize along with Samuel Beckett
Samuel Barclay Beckett (; 13 April 1906 – 22 December 1989) was an Irish writer of novels, plays, short stories, and poems. Writing in both English and French, his literary and theatrical work features bleak, impersonal, and Tragicomedy, tra ...
. His candidacy was supported by some members of the Nobel committee, but was rejected for political reasons by another member, and the Swedish Academy ultimately decided that Beckett should be awarded.
Death
Malraux died in Créteil
Créteil () is a Communes of France, commune in the southeastern suburbs of Paris, Île-de-France. It is located from the Kilometre Zero, centre of Paris. Créteil is the ''préfecture'' (capital) of the Val-de-Marne Departments of France, dep ...
, near Paris, on 23 November 1976 from a lung embolism. He was a heavy smoker and had cancer. He was cremated and his ashes buried in the Verrières-le-Buisson (Essonne) cemetery. In recognition of his contributions to French culture, his ashes were moved to the Panthéon
The Panthéon (, ), is a monument in the 5th arrondissement of Paris, France. It stands in the Latin Quarter, Paris, Latin Quarter (Quartier latin), atop the , in the centre of the , which was named after it. The edifice was built between 1758 ...
in Paris during 1996, on the twentieth anniversary of his death.
Legacy and honours
*1933, Prix Goncourt
The Prix Goncourt ( , "The Goncourt Prize") is a prize in French literature, given by the académie Goncourt to the author of "the best and most imaginative prose work of the year". The prize carries a symbolic reward of only 10 euros, but resul ...
* Médaille de la Résistance
* Croix de Guerre
*Distinguished Service Order
The Distinguished Service Order (DSO) is a Military awards and decorations, military award of the United Kingdom, as well as formerly throughout the Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth, awarded for operational gallantry for highly successful ...
(United Kingdom)
* 1959, honorary doctorate
An honorary degree is an academic degree for which a university (or other degree-awarding institution) has waived all of the usual requirements. It is also known by the Latin phrases ''honoris causa'' ("for the sake of the honour") or '' ad hon ...
, University of São Paulo
The Universidade de São Paulo (, USP) is a public research university in the Brazilian state of São Paulo, and the largest public university in Brazil.
The university was founded on 25 January 1934, regrouping already existing schools in ...
*Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding, 1974 (India)
There is a large body of critical commentary on Malraux's literary ''œuvre'', including his extensive writings on art. However, some of his works, including the last two volumes of ''The Metamorphosis of the Gods'' (''L'Irréel'' and ''L'Intemporel''), are not yet available in English translation. Malraux's works on the theory of art contain a revolutionary approach to art that challenges the Enlightenment tradition that treats art simply as a source of "aesthetic pleasure". However, as French writer André Brincourt has commented, Malraux's books on art have been "skimmed a lot but very little read" (this is especially true in Anglophone countries) and the radical implications of his thinking are often missed. A particularly important aspect of Malraux's thinking about art is his explanation of the capacity of art to transcend time. In contrast to the traditional notion that art endures because it is timeless ("eternal"), Malraux argues that art lives on through metamorphosis – a process of resuscitation (where the work had fallen into obscurity) and transformation in meaning. This idea has also been extended into scholarship about the function of image datasets in art history.
*1968, an international Malraux Society was founded in the United States. It produces the journal ''Revue André Malraux Review'', Michel Lantelme, editor, at University of Oklahoma
The University of Oklahoma (OU) is a Public university, public research university in Norman, Oklahoma, United States. Founded in 1890, it had existed in Oklahoma Territory near Indian Territory for 17 years before the two territories became the ...
.
*Another international Malraux association, the ''Amitiés internationales André Malraux'', is based in Paris.
*A French-language website, ''Site littéraire André Malraux'', offers research, information, and critical commentary about Malraux's works.
*A quote from Malraux's ''Antimémoires'' is included in the original 1997 English translation of '' Castlevania: Symphony of the Night''. The quote, "What is a man? A miserable little pile of secrets" is part of a monologue early in the game between Richter and Dracula
''Dracula'' is an 1897 Gothic fiction, Gothic horror fiction, horror novel by Irish author Bram Stoker. The narrative is Epistolary novel, related through letters, diary entries, and newspaper articles. It has no single protagonist and opens ...
.
*One of the primary "feeder" schools of the Lycée Français Charles de Gaulle in London
London is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of both England and the United Kingdom, with a population of in . London metropolitan area, Its wider metropolitan area is the largest in Wester ...
is named in honour of André Malraux.
Bibliography
* ''Lunes en Papier'', 1923 ('' Paper Moons'', 2005)
* ''La Tentation de l'Occident'', 1926 ('' The Temptation of the West'', 1926)
* ''Royaume-Farfelu'', 1928 ('' The Kingdom of Farfelu'', 2005)
* (reprint University of Chicago Press, 1992, )
* ''La Voie royale'', 1930 ('' The Royal Way'' or ''The Way of the Kings'', 1930)
* ''La Condition humaine'', 1933 (''Man's Fate
''Man's Fate'' (French: ''La Condition humaine'', "The Human Condition") is a 1933 novel written by André Malraux about the failed communist insurrection in Shanghai in 1927, and the existential quandaries facing a diverse group of people asso ...
'', 1934)
* ''Le Temps du mépris'', 1935 (''Days of Wrath'', 1935)
* ''L'Espoir'', 1937 ('' Man's Hope'', 1938)
* (reprint University of Chicago Press, 1992, )
* '' La Psychologie de l'Art'', 1947–1949 (''The Psychology of Art'')
* ''Le Musée imaginaire de la sculpture mondiale'' (1952–54) (''The Imaginary Museum of World Sculpture'' (in three volumes))
* '' Les Voix du silence'', 1951 (''The Voices of Silence'', 1953)
* ''La Métamorphose des dieux'' (English translation: ''The Metamorphosis of the Gods'', by Stuart Gilbert, London: Secker and Warburg, 1960- .):
**Vol 1. ''Le Surnaturel'', 1957
**Vol 2. ''L'Irréel'', 1974
**Vol 3. ''L'Intemporel'', 1976
* '' Antimémoires'', 1967 (''Anti-Memoirs'', 1968 – autobiography)
* '' Les Chênes qu'on abat'', 1971 (''Felled Oaks'' or ''The Fallen Oaks'')
* ''Lazare'', 1974 (''Lazarus'', 1977)
* ''L'Homme précaire et la littérature'', 1977
* ''Saturne: Le destin, l'art et Goya'', (Paris: Gallimard, 1978) (Translation of an earlier edition published in 1957: Malraux, André.
* ''Saturn: An Essay on Goya''. Translated by C.W. Chilton. London: Phaidon Press, 1957.)
* ''Lettres choisies, 1920–1976''. Paris, Gallimard, 2012.
For a more complete bibliography, see site littéraire André Malraux.
Exhibitions
* ''André Malraux'', Fondation Maeght, Vence, 1973
* ''André Malraux et la modernité - le dernier des romantiques'', Centennial Exhibition of his Birth, Musée de la Vie romantique, Paris, 2001, by Solange Thierry, with contributions by Marc Lambron, Solange Thierry, Daniel Marchesseau, Pierre Cabanne, Antoine Terrasse, Christiane Moatti, Gilles Béguin and Germain Viatte ()
References
Further reading
Art and the Human Adventure: André Malraux's Theory of Art
(Amsterdam, Rodopi: 2009) Derek Allan
* ''André Malraux'' (1960) by Geoffrey H. Hartman
* ''André Malraux: The Indochina adventure'' (1960) by Walter Langlois (New York Praeger).
*
* ''Malraux'' (1971) by Pierre Galante ()
* ''André Malraux: A Biography'' (1997) by Curtis Cate Fromm Publishing ()
* ''Malraux ou la Lutte avec l'ange. Art, histoire et religion'' (2001) by Raphaël Aubert ()
* ''Malraux : A Life'' (2005) by Olivier Todd (
Review by Christopher Hitchens
* ''Dits et écrits d'André Malraux : Bibliographie commentée'' (2003) by Jacques Chanussot and Claude Travi ()
* ''André Malraux'' (2003) by Roberta Newnham ()
*
*
*
*
* ''Andre Malraux: Tragic Humanist'' (1963) by Charles D. Blend, Ohio State University Press ()
* ''Mona Lisa's Escort: André Malraux and the Reinvention of French Culture'' (1999) by Herman Lebovics, Cornell University Press.
* Derek Allan,
Art and Time
'', Cambridge Scholars, 2013.
* Leys, Simon ( Pierre Ryckmans), 'Malraux', in ''The Hall of Uselessness: Collected Essays'' (Melbourne: Black Inc, 2011), pp. 144–152.
External links
Amitiés Internationales André Malraux
The official site of the French André Malraux Society: Malraux and culture.
André Malraux
The site of research and information dedicated to André Malraux: literature, art, religion, history and culture.
*
Université McGill: le roman selon les romanciers (French)
Inventory and analysis of André Malraux non-novelistic writings
A multimedia adaptation of Voices of silence
"Andre Malraux and the Arts"
– Henri Peyre, The Baltimore Museum of Art: Baltimore, Maryland, 1964 – Accessed 26 June 2012
*
*
Villa André Malraux
{{DEFAULTSORT:Malraux, Andre
1901 births
1976 deaths
Writers from Paris
French travel writers
French Resistance members
French philosophers of art
French art historians
French Army personnel of World War II
French people of the Spanish Civil War
Ministers of culture of France
Ministers of information of France
Prix Goncourt winners
Prix Interallié winners
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France)
Recipients of the Resistance Medal
Companions of the Liberation
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Grand Crosses with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Burials at the Panthéon, Paris
20th-century French novelists
20th-century French historians
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20th-century French male writers
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