Alauddin Khalji's conquest of Gujarat, also known as the Muslim conquest of Gujarat, began in 1299 when the
Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate or the Sultanate of Delhi was a Medieval India, late medieval empire primarily based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for more than three centuries. ruler
Alauddin Khalji
Alauddin Khalji (; ), born Ali Gurshasp, was a ruler from the Khalji dynasty that ruled the Delhi Sultanate in the Indian subcontinent. Alauddin instituted a number of significant administrative changes in the Delhi Sultanate, related to revenue ...
sent an army to ransack the
Gujarat
Gujarat () is a States of India, state along the Western India, western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the List of states and union territories ...
region of India, which was ruled by the
Vaghela king
Karna
Karna (Sanskrit: कर्ण, IAST: ''Karṇa''), also known as Vasusena, Anga-Raja, Sutaputra and Radheya, is one of the major characters in the Hindu epic ''Mahābhārata''. He is the son of Surya (the Sun deity) and princess Kunti (later ...
. The Delhi forces plundered several major cities of Gujarat, including
Anahilavada (Patan),
Khambhat
Khambhat (, ), also known as Cambay, is a city and the surrounding urban agglomeration in Anand district in the Indian state of Gujarat. It was once an important trading center, but its harbour gradually silted up, and the maritime trade moved ...
,
Surat
Surat (Gujarati Language, Gujarati: ) is a city in the western Indian States and territories of India, state of Gujarat. The word Surat directly translates to ''face'' in Urdu, Gujarati language, Gujarati and Hindi. Located on the banks of t ...
and
Somnath
Prabhas Patan, historically named Dev Patan, is a locality in Veraval, Gujarat. As the site of the Somnath temple and its associated Jyotirlinga (an aniconic representation of the god Shiva), it is an important place of Hindu pilgrimage.
Pl ...
. Karna was able to regain control of at least a part of his kingdom in the later years. However, in 1304, a second invasion by Alauddin's forces permanently ended the Vaghela dynasty, and resulted in the annexation of
Gujarat to the Delhi Sultanate.
Background
After becoming the
Sultan of Delhi
The Sultan of Delhi was the absolute monarch of the Delhi Sultanate which stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent during the period of medieval era, for 320 years (1206–1526).[Alauddin Khalji
Alauddin Khalji (; ), born Ali Gurshasp, was a ruler from the Khalji dynasty that ruled the Delhi Sultanate in the Indian subcontinent. Alauddin instituted a number of significant administrative changes in the Delhi Sultanate, related to revenue ...]
spent a few years consolidating his power. Once he had strengthened his control over the
Indo-Gangetic plains
The Indo-Gangetic Plain, also known as the Northern Plain or North Indian River Plain, is a fertile plain spanning across the northern and north-eastern part of the Indian subcontinent. It encompasses northern and eastern India, eastern Pakist ...
, he decided to invade Gujarat. According to the
Persian
Persian may refer to:
* People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language
** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples
** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...
historian
Wassaf
Abdallah ibn Faḍlallah Sharaf al-Din Shīrāzī (; 1265–1328), called Wassaf or Vassaf, was a Persian historian of the Ilkhanate. ''Waṣṣāf'', sometimes lengthened to ''Waṣṣāf al-Ḥaḍrat'' or ''Vassaf-e Hazrat'' (), is a title me ...
(
fl.
''Floruit'' ( ; usually abbreviated fl. or occasionally flor.; from Latin for 'flourished') denotes a date or period during which a person was known to have been alive or active. In English, the unabbreviated word may also be used as a noun indic ...
1299-1323), Alauddin invaded Gujarat because "the vein of the zeal of
religion
Religion is a range of social system, social-cultural systems, including designated religious behaviour, behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, religious text, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics in religion, ethics, or ...
beat high for the subjection of
infidelity
Infidelity (synonyms include non-consensual non-monogamy, cheating, straying, adultery, being unfaithful, two-timing, or having an affair) is a violation of a couple's emotional or sexual exclusivity that commonly results in feelings of anger, se ...
and destruction of
idols."
Gujarat was one of the wealthiest regions of India, because of its fertile soil and the
Indian Ocean trade
Indian Ocean trade has been a key factor in East–West exchanges throughout history. Long-distance maritime trade by Austronesian trade ships and South Asian and Middle Eastern dhows, made it a dynamic zone of interaction between peoples, cu ...
. Moreover, a large number of Muslim traders lived in the
port cities of Gujarat. Alauddin's conquest of Gujarat would make it convenient for the
Muslim
Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...
merchants of north India to participate in
international trade
International trade is the exchange of capital, goods, and services across international borders or territories because there is a need or want of goods or services. (See: World economy.)
In most countries, such trade represents a significan ...
.
At that time, Gujarat was ruled by the
Vaghela king Karnadeva (called Rai Karan by the Muslim chroniclers). According to the 14th century
Jain chronicler
Merutunga
Merutuṅga was a medieval scholar from present-day Gujarat in India and was a Śvētāmbara Jain monk of the Achal Gaccha. He is presently most well-known for his Sanskrit text, the '' Prabandhacintāmaṇi'', composed in 1306 CE. He also ...
's ''Vichara-shreni'', Karna's
Nagara minister Madhava brought the invaders to Gujarat. The 15th century text ''
Kanhadade Prabandha
''Kānhaḍade Prabandha'' is a book by Indian poet Padmanābha written in 1455, in a western Apabhramsha dialect. The book tells the story of Raval Kanhadade ( Kanhadadeva), the Chahamana ruler of Jalore.
Textual history
Padmanabha wro ...
'' also states that the Vaghela
king
King is a royal title given to a male monarch. A king is an Absolute monarchy, absolute monarch if he holds unrestricted Government, governmental power or exercises full sovereignty over a nation. Conversely, he is a Constitutional monarchy, ...
had humiliated Madhava, killed his brother Keshava, and
abducted his wife. Seeking revenge, Madhava went to Delhi and urged Alauddin to help him wage a war against the Vaghela king. This account is also supported by the 17th-century chronicler
Munhot Nainsi. This account seems to be based on historical truth, and may explain why Alauddin could invade Gujarat without subjugating the kingdoms which acted as a
buffer zone
A buffer zone, also historically known as a march, is a neutral area that lies between two or more bodies of land; usually, between countries. Depending on the type of buffer zone, it may serve to separate regions or conjoin them.
Common types o ...
between Delhi and Gujarat.
1299 invasion
March to Gujarat
On 25 February 1299, Alauddin ordered his army to prepare for the march to Gujarat. According to
Wassaf
Abdallah ibn Faḍlallah Sharaf al-Din Shīrāzī (; 1265–1328), called Wassaf or Vassaf, was a Persian historian of the Ilkhanate. ''Waṣṣāf'', sometimes lengthened to ''Waṣṣāf al-Ḥaḍrat'' or ''Vassaf-e Hazrat'' (), is a title me ...
, the army comprised 14,000
cavalry
Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from ''cheval'' meaning "horse") are groups of soldiers or warriors who Horses in warfare, fight mounted on horseback. Until the 20th century, cavalry were the most mob ...
and 20,000
infantry
Infantry, or infantryman are a type of soldier who specialize in ground combat, typically fighting dismounted. Historically the term was used to describe foot soldiers, i.e. those who march and fight on foot. In modern usage, the term broadl ...
. One section of the army started its march from Delhi, led by
Nusrat Khan. Another section, led by
Ulugh Khan, marched from
Sindh
Sindh ( ; ; , ; abbr. SD, historically romanized as Sind (caliphal province), Sind or Scinde) is a Administrative units of Pakistan, province of Pakistan. Located in the Geography of Pakistan, southeastern region of the country, Sindh is t ...
, attacking
Jaisalmer
Jaisalmer , nicknamed ''The Golden city'', is a city in the north-western Indian state of Rajasthan, located west of the state capital Jaipur, in the heart of the Thar Desert. It serves as the administrative headquarters of Jaisalmer district ...
along the way. The two sections met somewhere near
Chittor
Chittorgarh (; also Chitror or Chittor or Chittaurgarh) is a major city in the state of Rajasthan in western India. It lies on the Berach River, a tributary of the Banas, and is the administrative headquarters of Chittorgarh District. It wa ...
, and then marched to Gujarat through
Mewar
Mewar, also spelled as Mewad is a region in the south-central part of Rajasthan state of India. It includes the present-day districts of Bhilwara, Chittorgarh, Pratapgarh, Rajsamand, Udaipur, Pirawa Tehsil of Jhalawar District of Rajasth ...
. Different medieval chroniclers given different dates (ranging from 1298 to 1300) for the start of the Delhi army's march. An inscription found at
Somnath
Prabhas Patan, historically named Dev Patan, is a locality in Veraval, Gujarat. As the site of the Somnath temple and its associated Jyotirlinga (an aniconic representation of the god Shiva), it is an important place of Hindu pilgrimage.
Pl ...
clearly indicates that a battle took place there in June 1299. Hence, the invasion would have definitely started before this date.
During this march, Alauddin's generals seem to have raided a portion of the
Guhila
Guhila, also called Guhil and Guhadatt, was the ruler of Idar and Mewar from 566-568 AD. He is known as the founder of the Guhila dynasty
The Guhilas of Medapata colloquially known as Guhilas of Mewar were a Rajput dynasty that ruled the Ki ...
territory of Mewar. The Jain writer Jina Prabha Suri states that the Guhila king Samarasimha protected his territory from Alauddin's forces. The 1439 Ranpur inscription describes one Bhuvanasimha as "the conqueror of
Shri
Shri (; , ) is a Sanskrit term denoting resplendence, wealth and prosperity, primarily used as an honorific.
The word is widely used in South and Southeast Asian languages such as Assamese, Meitei ( Manipuri), Marathi, Malay (including In ...
Allavadina Sultan". Bhuvanasimha belonged to the
Sisodia branch of the Guhilas, and may have served as a feudatory of Samarasimha. The Delhi army did not seem to have suffered any serious reverses against the Guhilas, as they were able to easily capture Gujarat sometime later. It appears that a column of the Delhi army carried out a light raid in the Guhila territory, and met with strong resistance.
After crossing the
Banas River, Alauddin's forces captured a fort called Radosa.
Invasion
The sudden invasion from Delhi appears to have been a surprise for the Vaghela king Karna. Alauddin's army captured Gujarat easily in a very short time, possibly indicating that Karna might have been unpopular among his subjects, or had an ineffective military and administrative setup.
The Jain chronicler Jinaprabha Suri states that Ulugh Khan's forces defeated Karna's army at
Asapalli (present-day Ahmedabad).
According to the 14th century writer
Isami, Karna weighed his options: putting up a fight against the invaders or retiring into a fortress. Given his lack of adequate war preparation, his ministers advised him to leave the country and return after the departure of the invaders. Historian A. K. Majumdar interprets Isami's writings to mean that Karna took shelter in a fort, but epigraphist
Z. A. Desai notes that no such conclusion can be drawn from Isami's writings.
According to Barani, Karna fled to
Devagiri
Daulatabad Fort, originally Deogiri Fort, is a historic fortified citadel located in Daulatabad village near Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India. It was the capital of the Yadavas (9th century – 14th century CE), for a brief time the capital of ...
, the capital of the neighbouring
Yadava
The Yadava (), not to be confused with Yadav, were an ancient Indian people who believed to have descended from Yadu (legendary king), Yadu, a legendary king of Chandravamsha lineage.
The community was formed of various clans, being the #T ...
kingdom. However, historian
Peter Jackson
Sir Peter Robert Jackson (born 31 October 1961) is a New Zealand filmmaker. He is best known as the director, writer, and producer of the ''Lord of the Rings'' trilogy (2001–2003) and the ''Hobbit'' trilogy (2012–2014), both of which ar ...
believes that Barani's statement is inaccurate: Karna fled to Devagiri only during the later 1304 invasion.
Plunder and massacre
On the third day after Karna fled his capital
Anahilavada (modern Patan, called Nahrwala in Muslim chronicles), the invaders arrived in the city. According to Isami, the city abounded in valuable commodities, precious metals, and treasures: the invaders looted these, and also seized seven elephants. Karna's wealth and his wives, including his chief queen Kamala Devi, were captured by the invaders.
According to Jinaprabha, Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan destroyed hundreds of towns, including
Asapalli (modern
Ahmedabad
Ahmedabad ( ), also spelled Amdavad (), is the most populous city in the Indian state of Gujarat. It is the administrative headquarters of the Ahmedabad district and the seat of the Gujarat High Court. Ahmedabad's population of 5,570,585 ...
),
Vanmanthali and
Surat
Surat (Gujarati Language, Gujarati: ) is a city in the western Indian States and territories of India, state of Gujarat. The word Surat directly translates to ''face'' in Urdu, Gujarati language, Gujarati and Hindi. Located on the banks of t ...
. The invaders also looted several monasteries, palaces and temples. This account is also confirmed by the Delhi Sultanate chronicler
Ziauddin Barani
Ziauddin Barani (; 1285–1357) was an Indian political thinker of the Delhi Sultanate located in present-day Northern India during Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firuz Shah's reign. He was best known for composing the ''Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi'' ...
. Isami states that the invading soldiers even dug out the treasures hidden underground by the locals.
At the wealthy port city of
Khambhat
Khambhat (, ), also known as Cambay, is a city and the surrounding urban agglomeration in Anand district in the Indian state of Gujarat. It was once an important trading center, but its harbour gradually silted up, and the maritime trade moved ...
, Nusrat Khan obtained a great amount of wealth from the local merchants and other rich people. There, he also forcibly obtained the slave
Malik Kafur
Malik Kafur (died February 1316), also known as Taj al-Din Izz al-Dawla, was a prominent general of the Delhi Sultanate ruler Alauddin Khalji. He was captured by Alauddin's general Nusrat Khan Jalesari, Nusrat Khan during the Alauddin Khalji's co ...
, who later became a general of the Delhi Sultanate and led Alauddin's campaigns in
Deccan
The Deccan is a plateau extending over an area of and occupies the majority of the Indian peninsula. It stretches from the Satpura and Vindhya Ranges in the north to the northern fringes of Tamil Nadu in the south. It is bound by the mount ...
. According to
Wassaf
Abdallah ibn Faḍlallah Sharaf al-Din Shīrāzī (; 1265–1328), called Wassaf or Vassaf, was a Persian historian of the Ilkhanate. ''Waṣṣāf'', sometimes lengthened to ''Waṣṣāf al-Ḥaḍrat'' or ''Vassaf-e Hazrat'' (), is a title me ...
, the Muslim army massacred people "unmercifully, throughout the impure land, for the sake of Islam". The invaders plundered gold and silver "to an extent greater than can be conceived", besides a variety of
precious stone
Precious may refer to:
Music
* Precious (group), a British female pop group
Albums
* ''Precious'' (Chanté Moore album), 1992
* ''Precious'' (Conrad Sewell album), 2023
* ''Precious'' (Cubic U album), 1998
* ''Precious'' (Ours album), 20 ...
s and
textile
Textile is an Hyponymy and hypernymy, umbrella term that includes various Fiber, fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, Staple (textiles)#Filament fiber, filaments, Thread (yarn), threads, and different types of #Fabric, fabric. ...
s. Wassaf summarizes the invasion as follows:
Wassaf also states that the invaders discovered a beautiful
jasper
Jasper, an aggregate of microgranular quartz and/or cryptocrystalline chalcedony and other mineral phases, is an opaque, impure variety of silica, usually red, yellow, brown or green in color; and rarely blue. The common red color is due to ...
-coloured stone with ornamental figures from the ruins of the destroyed temples. This stone was sculptured with verses from the
Quran
The Quran, also Romanization, romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a Waḥy, revelation directly from God in Islam, God (''Allah, Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which ...
, and placed at the entrance of the tomb shrine of Shaikh Murshid Abu Is'hak Ibrahim bin Shahriar.
Desecration of Somnath
One section of the invading army marched towards the reputed
Somnath
Prabhas Patan, historically named Dev Patan, is a locality in Veraval, Gujarat. As the site of the Somnath temple and its associated Jyotirlinga (an aniconic representation of the god Shiva), it is an important place of Hindu pilgrimage.
Pl ...
temple, hoping to plunder gold from there. The temple had earlier been destroyed by
Mahmud of Ghazni
Abu al-Qasim Mahmud ibn Sabuktigin (; 2 November 971 – 30 April 1030), usually known as Mahmud of Ghazni or Mahmud Ghaznavi (), was Sultan of the Ghaznavid Empire, ruling from 998 to 1030. During his reign and in medieval sources, he is usuall ...
in the 11th century, but had since been re-built.
The Delhi army met with resistance at Somnath. An inscription records that two "Vāja" warriors named Malasuta and Padamala died at the door of the Somanatha temple on 6 June 1299, while fighting the
Turushka
Turushka (or Turuṣka) may refer to:
*a common Sanskrit descriptor for Mohammedans (Muslims), whether of Turkish origin or otherwise
* a Sanskrit word for olibanum
* a term often used for Turks in some ancient sources; see
See also
* Turushk ...
s (the Turkic people).
After subjugating the defenders, Alauddin's army demolished the temple. According to the contemporary chronicler
Amir Khusrau
Abu'l Hasan Yamīn ud-Dīn Khusrau (1253 – 1325 AD), better known as Amīr Khusrau, sometimes spelled as, Amir Khusrow or Amir Khusro, was an Indo-Persian Sufi singer, musician, poet and scholar, who lived during the period of the Delhi Sult ...
, the temple was bent into the direction of
Kaaba
The Kaaba (), also spelled Kaba, Kabah or Kabah, sometimes referred to as al-Kaba al-Musharrafa (), is a stone building at the center of Islam's most important mosque and Holiest sites in Islam, holiest site, the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Sa ...
(
qibla
The qibla () is the direction towards the Kaaba in the Great Mosque of Mecca, Sacred Mosque in Mecca, which is used by Muslims in various religious contexts, particularly the direction of prayer for the salah. In Islam, the Kaaba is believed to ...
). The invaders looted the temple's wealth, and carried its main idol to Delhi, where its fragments were thrown to be trampled under the feet of Muslims.
Wassaf describes the destruction of the Somnath idol as follows: The idol was adorned with a jewel-studded gold crown and a pearl necklace, and was of "admirable workmanship". After looting the jewels, the Muslim soldiers decided to destroy the idol. The Hindus offered them a thousand pieces of gold to spare the idol, but the soldiers rejected the demand. The invaders cut off its perfumed limbs, destroyed it, and carried its fragments to Delhi. The entrance of the city's
Jami Masjid
A congregational mosque or Friday mosque (, ''masjid jāmi‘'', or simply: , ''jāmi‘''; ), or sometimes great mosque or grand mosque (, ''jāmi‘ kabir''; ), is a mosque for hosting the Friday noon prayers known as ''jumu'ah''.See:
*
*
*
*
...
was paved with these fragments.
Mutiny near Jalore
Nusrat Khan and Ulugh Khan returned to Delhi with a huge amount of wealth and prisoners, including
Malik Kafur
Malik Kafur (died February 1316), also known as Taj al-Din Izz al-Dawla, was a prominent general of the Delhi Sultanate ruler Alauddin Khalji. He was captured by Alauddin's general Nusrat Khan Jalesari, Nusrat Khan during the Alauddin Khalji's co ...
and the Vaghela queen Kamala Devi. The individual soldiers in the Delhi army had also managed to gather their own loot. When the army halted at
Sakarne near
Jalore
Jalore () (ISO 15919 : ''Jālora'' ), also known as Granite City, is a city in the western Indian state of Rajasthan. It is the administrative headquarters of Jalore District.
It has a river known as Jawai Nadi. Jalore lies to south of Sukri ...
on its way to Delhi, the generals ordered these soldiers to pay ''
khums
In Islam, khums ( ) is a tax on Muslims which obligates them to pay one-fifth (20%) of their acquired wealth from the spoils of war and, according to most Muslim jurists, other specified types of income, towards various designated beneficiarie ...
'' (one-fifth of the share of loot). Some of the soldiers tried to conceal the true amount of wealth looted by them, leading to disputes. The generals punished several soldiers. According to the 15th century text ''Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi'' (written by Yahya), these soldiers were put under bellows, forced to drink saline water, and beaten with fists and rods.
As a result, a section of the army revolted against the generals. The mutineers were mostly "neo-Muslims", the Mongols (Mughals), who had converted to Islam recently. According to the 14th-century historian Isami, the revolt was led by Muhammad Shah, Kabhru, Yalhaq and Burraq. According to the 15th-century historian Yahya, it was led by Iljak, Kasri, Begi, Tamghan, Muhammad Shah, Timur Bagha, Shadi Bugha and Qutlugh Bugha. In ''
Nainsi ri Khyat
Nainsi ri Khyat (or 'Khyat of Nainsi') is a late 17th-century Marwari & Dingal text chronicling the history of Marwar. Its author Muhnot Nainsi, an official of Marwar State, based the Khyat (or chronicle) on the Charan accounts and the traditi ...
'', the 17th-century chronicler
Munhot Nainsi states that three days before the mutiny, the rebel leaders had met
Samantasimha, the
Chahamana ruler of Jalore. On the day of the mutiny, the rebels attacked the generals' camp from one side, while the Chahamana army attacked it from the other side. The veracity of Nainsi's account is doubtful, as he inaccurately states that Alauddin personally led the Delhi army during this campaign, and was present at the time of the mutiny.
The mutiny began when the rebels murdered Malik A'izzudin, who was a brother of Nusrat Khan and the secretary of Ulugh Khan. The next day, around 2000-3000 of them attacked the camp of Ulugh Khan, who managed to escape, as he was in a
lavatory. The attackers killed a son of Alauddin's sister, mistaking him for Ulugh Khan. Ulugh Khan escaped to Nusrat Khan's tent, where drums were beaten to assemble the loyal soldiers. These loyal soldiers forced the rebels to retreat.
The rebellion was completely suppressed within 4 days. The mutiny had terrified the royal generals, who quickly resumed their march to Delhi, without making any further ''khums'' demands. Two of the rebel leaders — Muhammad Shah and Kabhru — sought asylum with
Hammiradeva
Hammiradeva (IAST: Hammīra-deva; r. 1283 – 10 July 1301) was the last ruler from the Ranthambore branch of the Chauhans (Chahamanas). He is also known as Hamir Dev Chauhan in the Muslim chronicles and the vernacular literature.
Hammiradeva ...
, the
Chahamana ruler of Ranastambhapura (modern
Ranthambore). Two other rebel readers — Yalhaq and Burraq — sought shelter with the Vaghela king Karna.
When Alauddin heard about the mutiny, he ordered the arrests of the wives and children of the mutineers in Delhi. Nusrat Khan meted out especially brutal punishment to the wives and children of the individuals who had murdered his brother A'izzudin. The children were cut into pieces in front of their mothers, who were raped, humiliated and forced into prostitution. These brutal punishments shocked the chronicler
Ziauddin Barani
Ziauddin Barani (; 1285–1357) was an Indian political thinker of the Delhi Sultanate located in present-day Northern India during Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firuz Shah's reign. He was best known for composing the ''Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi'' ...
, who declared that no religion allowed such acts. According to him, the practice of punishing wives and children for the crimes of men started with this incident in Delhi.
1304 invasion
Karna seems to have recaptured at least a part of his former territory in the later years. An inscription found at the Sampla village in Gujarat attests that he was ruling at Patan on 4 August 1304. The Jain author
Merutunga
Merutuṅga was a medieval scholar from present-day Gujarat in India and was a Śvētāmbara Jain monk of the Achal Gaccha. He is presently most well-known for his Sanskrit text, the '' Prabandhacintāmaṇi'', composed in 1306 CE. He also ...
also states that he ruled up to 1304 CE.
The 14th century Muslim chronicler
Isami also suggests that Karna managed to regain his power. According to Isami, Alauddin had handed over the administration of the newly captured
Ranthambore Fort
Ranthambore Fort lies within the Ranthambore National Park, near the city of Sawai Madhopur in Sawai Madhopur district of Rajasthan, India. It is a formidable fort having been a focal point of the historical developments of Rajasthan. The fo ...
to Malik Shahin in 1301. But sometime later, Malik Shahin fled the fort because he was afraid of Karna, who ruled the neighbouring territory. Karna was supported by the neo-Muslim Mongol ''
amirs'', who had rebelled against Alauddin's generals at Jalore.
Accounts of various chroniclers
According to
Amir Khusrau
Abu'l Hasan Yamīn ud-Dīn Khusrau (1253 – 1325 AD), better known as Amīr Khusrau, sometimes spelled as, Amir Khusrow or Amir Khusro, was an Indo-Persian Sufi singer, musician, poet and scholar, who lived during the period of the Delhi Sult ...
's poem ''Ashiqa'', Karna and his queen Kamala Devi had a daughter named Devala Devi ("Dewal Di"). After the 1299 invasion, Kamala Devi was taken to Delhi, and inducted into Alauddin's
harem
A harem is a domestic space that is reserved for the women of the house in a Muslim family. A harem may house a man's wife or wives, their pre-pubescent male children, unmarried daughters, female domestic Domestic worker, servants, and other un ...
. Eight years later, she requested Alauddin to get Devala Devi from Gujarat. Alauddin sent a message to Karna, and Karna agreed to oblige. He was preparing to send Devala Devi to Delhi with many presents, but then he came to know that a large Delhi army led by Ulugh Khan and Panchami had been sent to conquer Gujarat. He then sought asylum from the
Yadava
The Yadava (), not to be confused with Yadav, were an ancient Indian people who believed to have descended from Yadu (legendary king), Yadu, a legendary king of Chandravamsha lineage.
The community was formed of various clans, being the #T ...
prince Shankaradeva ("Sankh Deo"), a son of
Ramachandra of Devagiri
Ramachandra (IAST: Rāmacandra, r. ), also known as Ramadeva, was a ruler of the Seuna (Yadava) dynasty of Deccan region in India. He seized the throne from his cousin Ammana, after staging a coup in the capital Devagiri. He expanded the Yadav ...
("Ram Deo"). Shankaradeva agreed to help him, but on the condition that he would marry Devala Devi. Karna unwillingly accepted the condition. But before he could send her to Devagiri, Panchami's army captured her. She was sent to Delhi, where fell in love with the 10-year old Khizr Khan. Despite objections from Khizr Khan's mother, the two later married.
The 14th-century chronicler Isami gives a slightly different account of events. According to him, Alauddin's forces returned to Delhi after plundering Gujarat, and Karna re-occupied his capital. Later, Alauddin sent an army led by Malik Ahmad Jhitam (alias Qara Beg) and an officer named Panchmani. When the invading army arrived at Patan, Karna fled to the Yadava kingdom ("Marhat" or Maharashtra), leaving behind his family and his army. However, he failed to find asylum there, and moved on to the Kakatiya kingdom ("Tilang" or Telangana). The Kakatiya ruler
Rudradeva
Rudra-deva (r. ) was a Kakatiya king, who ruled parts of the present-day Telangana and Andhra Pradesh in southern India. He was the first sovereign ruler of his dynasty.
Like his father Prola II, Rudra was initially a vassal to the Chalukyas o ...
("Luddar Dev") granted him asylum. Meanwhile, Malik Jhitam returned to Delhi with the wives and daughters of Karna, including Devala Devi. Alauddin granted Gujarat as an ''
iqta'
An iqta () and occasionally iqtaʿa () was an Islamic practice of farming out tax revenues yielded by land granted temporarily to army officials in place of a regular wage; it became common in the Muslim empire of the Caliphate. Iqta has been defi ...
'' to his brother-in-law
Alp Khan, who came from
Multan
Multan is the List of cities in Punjab, Pakistan by population, fifth-most populous city in the Punjab, Pakistan, Punjab province of Pakistan. Located along the eastern bank of the Chenab River, it is the List of cities in Pakistan by populatio ...
and became the governor of Gujarat. Isami does not mention Kamala Devi.
Ziauddin Barani
Ziauddin Barani (; 1285–1357) was an Indian political thinker of the Delhi Sultanate located in present-day Northern India during Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firuz Shah's reign. He was best known for composing the ''Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi'' ...
, another 14th-century chronicler, does not mention the second invasion in his ''Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi''. He states that Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan plundered Gujarat, after Karna fled to the Devagiri. The two generals later returned to Delhi with the wives and daughters of Karna. Barani, however, does not mention Devala Devi's name. Another medieval writer Nizam ud-Din gives a similar account, and mentions the capture of Devala Devi ("Dewal"). But he ignores the rest of the ''Ashiqa'' narrative. Like Isami, he does not mention Kamala Devi at all.
The 16th-century historian
`Abd al-Qadir Bada'uni follows Barani's account, but presents a part of the ''Ashiqa'' account as history, but does not mention Kamala Devi. Bada'uni's contemporary Firishta combines all the previous accounts to present the following narrative: the first invasion of Gujarat was led by Alauddin's generals Aluf Khan (Alp Khan) and Nusrat Khan. They captured Kamala Devi ("Kowla Devy") and other wives and daughters of Karna, who sought shelter with
Ramachandra of Devagiri
Ramachandra (IAST: Rāmacandra, r. ), also known as Ramadeva, was a ruler of the Seuna (Yadava) dynasty of Deccan region in India. He seized the throne from his cousin Ammana, after staging a coup in the capital Devagiri. He expanded the Yadav ...
. With Ramachandra's help, Karna became the ruler of a principality called
Baglana, located on the border of the Yadava territory. In 1308, Alauddin sent Malik Kafur to
subjugate Ramachandra. At this time, Kamala Devi requested him to bring her daughter Devala Devi ("Deval Devy") to Delhi. Malik Kafur reached Deccan, and asked Karna to surrender Devala Devi. However, Karna refused to do so and warded off the invaders in the mountain passes for two months. Ultimately, he decided to marry his daughter to Ramachandra's son Shankaradeva ("Shunkul Dev"). While an officer named Bhimadeva ("Bhim Deo") was escorting Devala to Shankaradeva, some Muslim soldiers visiting
Ellora chanced upon his contingent. The Muslim soldiers captured Devala Devi, and took her to Aluf Khan. Ultimately, Devala Devi was sent to Delhi, where she married Khizr Khan.
Historical accuracy
The most accurate among all these accounts seems to be that of Isami, who spent considerable time in the Deccan region. Amir Khusrau's ''Ashiqa'', which is of little historical value, states that the second invasion was led by Ulugh Khan (not Malik Jhitam). However, if the dates given by the 16th-century historian
Firishta
Firishta or Ferešte (), full name Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah Astarabadi (), was a Persian historian, who later settled in India and served the Deccan Sultans as their court historian. He was born in 1570 and died between 1611 and 1623.
Life
F ...
are accepted as correct, Ulugh Khan had already died by this time. On the other hand, Isami states that the invasion was led by Malik Jhitam.
The ''Ashiqa'' states that a mother Kamala Devi asked Alauddin to snatch her young daughter from her biological father. It goes on to claim that Karna not only readily agreed to this demand, but also decided to send some presents with her to Delhi. These claims, which imply that the Vaghelas had no sense of honour and chastity, seem absurd. Even Bada'uni, who placed a high value on the historicity of ''Ashiqa'', chose to ignore these claims in his writings. Firishta also refused to repeat Khsurau's statement that Karna was preparing to send presents with his daughter to Delhi. Similarly, Khusrau's claim that Devala Devi fell in love with her father's biggest enemy seems unlikely.
Also, it is unlikely that the Yadava king Ramachandra granted refuge to Karna. The Yadavas were enemies of the Chaulukyas-Vaghelas. Moreover, Ramachandra paid tribute to Alauddin in 1299, and some years later, even supported Alauddin's forces in their campaign against his other enemies, such as the
Hoysalas
The Hoysala Kingdom was a kingdom originating from the Indian subcontinent that ruled most of what is now Karnataka, parts of Tamilnadu and South-Western Telangana between the 11th and the 14th centuries CE. The capital of the Hoysalas was i ...
. Considering all these points, Isami's statement that Karna had to seek refuge from the Kakatiyas seems correct.
See also
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Gujarat under Delhi Sultanate
References
Bibliography
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External links
Amir Khusrau's descriptionof the invasion, from ''Khazain ul-Futuh'' composed at Alauddin's court
of the invasion, from ''Tazjiyatu-l Amsar wa Tajriyata-l Asar''
{{Alauddin Khalji
Alauddin Khalji
Battles involving the Delhi Sultanate
Battles involving the Rajputs
History of Gujarat