Ahmed Sékou Touré
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Ahmed Sékou Touré (var. Sheku Turay or Ture;
N'Ko NKo (ߒߞߏ), also spelled N'Ko, is an alphabetic script devised by Solomana Kante, Solomana Kanté in 1949, as a modern writing system for the Manding languages of West Africa. The term ''NKo'', which means ''I say'' in all Manding languages, i ...
: ; 9 January 1922 – 26 March 1984) was a Guinean political leader and African statesman who was the first president of Guinea from 1958 until his death in 1984. Touré was among the primary Guinean nationalists involved in gaining independence of the country from
France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
. He would later die in the
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in 1984. A devout
Muslim Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...
from the Mandinka ethnic group, Sékou Touré was the great-grandson of the powerful Mandinka Muslim cleric
Samori Ture Samori Ture ( – June 2, 1900), also known as Samori Toure, Samory Touré, or Almamy Samore Lafiya Toure, was a Mandinka people, Malinke and a Soninke people, Soninke Muslim cleric, military strategist, and founder of the Wassoulou Empire, an Is ...
who established an independent Islamic polity in part of West Africa. In 1960, he declared his Democratic Party of Guinea (''Parti démocratique de Guinée'', PDG) the only legal party in the state, and ruled from then on as a virtual dictator. He was re-elected unopposed to four seven-year terms in the absence of any legal opposition. Under his rule many people were killed, most notably at Camp Boiro.


Childhood and family background

Sékou Touré was born on 9 January 1922, into a
Muslim Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...
family in Faranah, French Guinea, a
colony A colony is a territory subject to a form of foreign rule, which rules the territory and its indigenous peoples separated from the foreign rulers, the colonizer, and their ''metropole'' (or "mother country"). This separated rule was often orga ...
of
France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
. Faranah is a town deep inside Guinea situated on the banks of the
Niger River The Niger River ( ; ) is the main river of West Africa, extending about . Its drainage basin is in area. Its source is in the Guinea Highlands in south-eastern Guinea near the Sierra Leone border. It runs in a crescent shape through Mali, Nige ...
. He was one of seven children born to Alpha Touré and Aminata Touré, who were subsistence farmers. He was an aristocratic member of the Mandinka ethnic group. His great-grandfather was
Samori Ture Samori Ture ( – June 2, 1900), also known as Samori Toure, Samory Touré, or Almamy Samore Lafiya Toure, was a Mandinka people, Malinke and a Soninke people, Soninke Muslim cleric, military strategist, and founder of the Wassoulou Empire, an Is ...
(Samory Touré), a noted Muslim Mandinka king who founded the
Wassoulou Empire The Samorian state, also referred to as the Wassoulou empire, Ouassalou empire, Mandinka empire or Samory's empire, was a short-lived West African state that existed from roughly 1878 until 1898, although dates vary from source to source. It span ...
(1861–1890) in the territory of Guinea and Mali, defeating numerous small African states with his large, professionally organized and equipped army. He resisted French colonial rule until his capture in 1898, and died while held in exile in Gabon. His father Alpha Touré was originally from the French Sudan (now
Mali Mali, officially the Republic of Mali, is a landlocked country in West Africa. It is the List of African countries by area, eighth-largest country in Africa, with an area of over . The country is bordered to the north by Algeria, to the east b ...
), and had migrated to the traditional gold mining town of Siguiri with his brothers. He eventually continued to Kankan, Kouroussa, Kissidougou, and then settled in Faranah. Aminata was not his first wife. She bore three babies, including Sékou and a brother who died in childhood, then she died giving birth to a third child, a girl named Nounkoumba. Sékou's birth supposedly coincided with an omen - a baby elephant was brought to Faranah and presented to the French colonial authorities. Sékou Touré attended the École Coranique (Qur'anic school) in his hometown and later a French lower-primary school in
Kankan Kankan ( Mandingo: Kánkàn; N’ko: ߞߊ߲ߞߊ߲߫) is the largest city in Guinea in land area, and the third largest in population, with a population of 198,013 people as of 2020. The city is located in eastern Guinea about east of the ...
. He allegedly failed the exams to enter the École normale supérieure William Ponty for refusing to write an essay critical of his ancestor Samori Toure. He was enrolled in the Georges Poiret Technical College in Conakry in 1936 but was expelled less than a year later at the age of 15 for leading a student protest against the quality of food and quickly became involved in
labor union A trade union (British English) or labor union (American English), often simply referred to as a union, is an organization of workers whose purpose is to maintain or improve the conditions of their employment, such as attaining better wages ...
activity. During his youth, Touré studied the works of
Karl Marx Karl Marx (; 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, political theorist, economist, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. He is best-known for the 1848 pamphlet '' The Communist Manifesto'' (written with Friedrich Engels) ...
and
Vladimir Lenin Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov ( 187021 January 1924), better known as Vladimir Lenin, was a Russian revolutionary, politician and political theorist. He was the first head of government of Soviet Russia from 1917 until Death and state funeral of ...
, among others.


Politics and trade unions

In 1940, Touré obtained a clerk's position with the ''Compagnie du Niger Français'' while also working to complete an examination course, which would allow him to join the Post, Telegraph and Telecommunications services (French: ''Postes, télégraphes et téléphones'' ( PTT)). After completing the examination course, he went on to work for the PTT as a postal clerk in Conakry in 1941. During this time, he formed connections with the French General Confederation of Labour, a communist-dominated French labor organization. Touré first became politically active while working for the PTT. In 1945, he founded the Post and Telecommunications Workers' Union (SPTT; the first trade union in French Guinea), and he became the general secretary of the union in 1946. Also the same year, he was a founding member of the African Democratic Rally (French: ''Rassemblement Démocratique Africain, RDA''), an alliance of political parties and affiliates in French West and Equatorial Africa. By 1948, he was elected general secretary of the Territorial Union of the Confédération Générale du Travail (CGT), and two years later, he was named general secretary of the coordinating committee of the (CGT) for French West Africa and French Togoland. In the 1951 elections, he campaigned with a
coalition A coalition is formed when two or more people or groups temporarily work together to achieve a common goal. The term is most frequently used to denote a formation of power in political, military, or economic spaces. Formation According to ''A G ...
of the RDA, the UDSR and the recently founded Democratic Party of Guinea (''Parti démocratique de Guinée'' or PDG, the RDA's Guinean section); however, the coalition performed poorly. In 1952, he became the leader of the PDG. The RDA agitated for the decolonization of Africa, and included representatives from all the French West African colonies. The party forged alliance with labor unions and Touré was elected as secretary-general. His greatest success as a trade union leader was when workers across French Guinea went on a 71-day general strike (longer than any other territories in the
French West Africa French West Africa (, ) was a federation of eight French colonial empires#Second French colonial empire, French colonial territories in West Africa: Colonial Mauritania, Mauritania, French Senegal, Senegal, French Sudan (now Mali), French Guin ...
) in 1953 to force the implementation of a new overseas labor code. He was later elected to Guinea's Territorial Assembly the same year. As a result, he was elected as one of the three secretaries-general of the French Communist Party's Confédération Générale du Travail ( General Confederation of Labour; CGT) in 1954. The PDG-RDA under Sékou Touré's leadership participated in the 1954 by-election, held after the death of Yacine Diallo. He lost to Diawadou Barry. The election was, however, marred with irregularities. The French minister Robert Buron admitted in 1968 that it had been rigged by France to prevent Sékou Touré from winning. In 1957, he organized the Union Générale des Travailleurs d'Afrique Noire, a common trade union centre for French West Africa. He was a leader of the RDA, working closely with Félix Houphouët-Boigny, who later was elected as president of the
Ivory Coast Ivory Coast, also known as Côte d'Ivoire and officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a country on the southern coast of West Africa. Its capital city of Yamoussoukro is located in the centre of the country, while its largest List of ci ...
. In 1956, Touré was elected Guinea's deputy to the
French National Assembly The National Assembly (, ) is the lower house of the Bicameralism, bicameral French Parliament under the French Fifth Republic, Fifth Republic, the upper house being the Senate (France), Senate (). The National Assembly's legislators are known ...
and mayor of
Conakry Conakry ( , ; ; ; ) is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Guinea. A port city, it serves as the economic, financial and cultural centre of Guinea. Its population as of the 2014 Guinea census was 1,660,973. The current population of C ...
, positions he used to criticize the French colonial regime. Touré served for some time as a representative of African groups in
France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
, where he worked to negotiate for the independence of France's African colonies. In September 1958, Guinea participated in the referendum on the new
Constitution of France The current Constitution of France was adopted on 4 October 1958. It is typically called the Constitution of the Fifth Republic , and it replaced the Constitution of the Fourth Republic of 1946 with the exception of the preamble per a 1971 d ...
. On acceptance of the new constitution, French overseas territories had the option of choosing to continue their existing status, to move toward full integration into
metropolitan France Metropolitan France ( or ), also known as European France (), is the area of France which is geographically in Europe and chiefly comprises #Hexagon, the mainland, popularly known as "the Hexagon" ( or ), and Corsica. This collective name for the ...
, or to acquire the status of an autonomous republic in the new quasi-federal French Community. If, however, they rejected the new constitution, they would become independent forthwith. French President
Charles de Gaulle Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle (22 November 18909 November 1970) was a French general and statesman who led the Free France, Free French Forces against Nazi Germany in World War II and chaired the Provisional Government of the French Re ...
made it clear that a country pursuing the independent course would no longer receive French economic and financial aid or retain French technical and administrative officers. In 1958, Touré's PDG, pushed for a "No" in the
French Union The French Union () was a political entity created by the French Fourth Republic to replace the old French colonial empire system, colloquially known as the " French Empire" (). It was ''de jure'' the end of the "indigenous" () status of Frenc ...
referendum A referendum, plebiscite, or ballot measure is a Direct democracy, direct vote by the Constituency, electorate (rather than their Representative democracy, representatives) on a proposal, law, or political issue. A referendum may be either bin ...
sponsored by the French government. Upon hearing of Touré's choice on the matter, General de Gaulle responded, "Then all you have to do is vote 'no'. I pledge myself that nobody will stand in the way of your independence." The French also threatened to cut off all their aid to Guinea in the event that the colony voted to become independent of France. The electorate of Guinea rejected the new constitution overwhelmingly, and Guinea accordingly became an independent state on 2 October 1958, with Touré, leader of Guinea's strongest labor union, as president. Guinea was thus the only African colony to vote for immediate independence rather than continued association with France, and hence was the only French colony to decline participation in the new
French Community The French Community () was the constitutional organization set up in October 1958 between France and its remaining African colonies, then in the process of decolonization. It replaced the French Union, which had reorganized the colonial em ...
when it became independent in 1958. In any event, the rest of Francophone Africa gained effective independence two years later in 1960. In response to the vote for immediate and total independence, the vindictive French settlers and colonialists in Guinea were quite dramatic in severing ties with Guinea, with many French civil servants destroying Guinean infrastructure as they departed Guinea as an act of vengeance for Guineans voting to become independent. ''
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'' observed how brutal the French were in tearing down all what they thought was their contributions to Guinea: "In reaction, and as a warning to other French-speaking territories, the French pulled out of Guinea over a two-month period, taking everything they could with them. They unscrewed light bulbs, removed plans for sewage pipelines in Conakry, the capital, and even burned medicines rather than leave them for the Guineans."


Presidency (1958–1984)

In 1960, Touré declared the PDG to be the only legal party, though the country had effectively been a one-party state since independence. For the next 24 years, Touré effectively held all governing power in the nation. He was elected to a seven-year term as president in 1961; as leader of the PDG he was the only candidate. He was reelected unopposed in 1968, 1974 and 1982. Every five years, a single list of PDG candidates was returned to the
National Assembly In politics, a national assembly is either a unicameral legislature, the lower house of a bicameral legislature, or both houses of a bicameral legislature together. In the English language it generally means "an assembly composed of the repr ...
. During his presidency, Touré's policies were strongly based on
socialism Socialism is an economic ideology, economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse Economic system, economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes ...
, with the nationalization of foreign companies and centralized economic plans. He won the Lenin Peace Prize as a result in 1961. His early actions to reject the French and then to appropriate wealth and farmland from traditional landlords angered many powerful forces, but the increasing failure of his government to provide either economic opportunities or democratic rights angered more. Famously, he stated that "Guinea prefers poverty in freedom to riches in slavery." Guineans who had fled reported that Touré's regime "practices tyranny and torture on a daily basis". His approach towards his opponents caused charges to be brought from
Amnesty International Amnesty International (also referred to as Amnesty or AI) is an international non-governmental organization focused on human rights, with its headquarters in the United Kingdom. The organization says that it has more than ten million members a ...
(as well as other human rights organizations), accusing his rule to be too oppressive. From 1965 to 1975 Touré ended all his government's relations with France, the former colonial power. Touré argued that Africa had lost much during colonization, and that Africa ought to retaliate by cutting off ties to former colonial nations. However, in 1978 Guinea's ties with the
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
soured, and, as a sign of reconciliation, President of France Valéry Giscard d'Estaing visited Guinea, the first state visit by a French president. Throughout Touré's dispute with France, he maintained good relations with several socialist countries. However, Touré's attitude toward France was not generally well received by his own people and some other African countries ended diplomatic relations with Guinea over his actions. He also often voiced his distrust of other African nations. Meanwhile, some 1.5 million Guineans were fleeing Guinea to neighboring countries, such as
Sierra Leone Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country on the southwest coast of West Africa. It is bordered to the southeast by Liberia and by Guinea to the north. Sierra Leone's land area is . It has a tropical climate and envi ...
. Despite this, Touré's position won the support of many anti-colonialist and Pan-African groups and leaders. Touré's primary allies in the region were presidents
Kwame Nkrumah Francis Kwame Nkrumah (, 21 September 1909 – 27 April 1972) was a Ghanaian politician, political theorist, and revolutionary. He served as Prime Minister of the Gold Coast (British colony), Gold Coast from 1952 until 1957, when it gained ...
of
Ghana Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It is situated along the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, and shares borders with Côte d’Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, and Togo to t ...
and Modibo Keita of
Mali Mali, officially the Republic of Mali, is a landlocked country in West Africa. It is the List of African countries by area, eighth-largest country in Africa, with an area of over . The country is bordered to the north by Algeria, to the east b ...
. After Nkrumah was overthrown in a 1966 coup, Touré offered him asylum in Guinea and gave him the honorary title of co-president. As a leader of the Pan-Africanist movement, Touré consistently spoke out against colonial powers, and befriended African American civil rights activists such as Malcolm X and Stokely Carmichael, to whom he offered asylum. Carmichael took the two leaders' names, as Kwame Ture. Touré had good relations with the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
under President John F. Kennedy. However, after Kennedy's
assassination Assassination is the willful killing, by a sudden, secret, or planned attack, of a personespecially if prominent or important. It may be prompted by political, ideological, religious, financial, or military motives. Assassinations are orde ...
, the relationship with Washington soured. When a Guinean delegation was imprisoned in
Ghana Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It is situated along the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, and shares borders with Côte d’Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, and Togo to t ...
, after the overthrow of Nkrumah, Touré blamed Washington. He feared that the
Central Intelligence Agency The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA; ) is a civilian foreign intelligence service of the federal government of the United States tasked with advancing national security through collecting and analyzing intelligence from around the world and ...
, as well as the Soviet Union, were plotting against his own regime even though he was taking economic aid from both parties. With Nkrumah, Touré helped in the formation of the All-African Peoples Revolutionary Party, and aided the PAIGC guerrillas in their fight against Portuguese colonialism in neighboring Portuguese Guinea. The Portuguese launched an attack upon Conakry in 1970 when some 350 men, under the leadership of Portuguese officers from Portuguese Guinea (now Guinea-Bissau), including FLNG partisans and African Portuguese soldiers, entered Guinea to rescue Portuguese prisoners of war, overthrow Touré's regime, and destroy PAIGC bases. They succeeded in the rescue but failed to dislodge Touré's regime. Touré directed waves of arrests, detentions, and some executions of known and suspected opposition leaders in Guinea followed this military operation. During its first three decades of independence, Guinea developed into a militantly socialist state, which merged the functions and membership of the PDG with the various institutions of government, including the public state bureaucracy. This unified party-state had nearly complete control over the country's economic and political life. Guinea expelled the US Peace Corps in 1966 because of their alleged involvement in a plot to overthrow President Touré. Similar charges were directed against France; diplomatic relations were severed in 1965 and Touré did not renew them until 1975. An ongoing source of contention between Guinea and its French-speaking neighbors was the estimated half-million expatriates in Senegal and Ivory Coast; some were active dissidents who, in 1966, formed the National Liberation Front of Guinea (Front de Libération Nationale de Guinée, or FLNG). In ''Le Français est à nous!'' (''French language belongs to us!''), French university teachers Maria Candéa an Laélia Véron praise Touré for having made official eight local languages of Guinea. They describe his linguistic policy as "très ambitieuse" (very ambitious). Between 1969 and 1976, according to Amnesty International, 4,000 persons in Guinea were detained for political reasons, with the fate of 2,900 unknown. After an alleged Fulani plot to assassinate Touré was disclosed in May 1976, Diallo Telli, a cabinet minister and formerly the first secretary-general of the OAU, was arrested and sent to prison. He died without trial in November of that year. In 1977, protests against the regime's economic policy, which dealt harshly with unauthorized trading, led to riots in which three regional governors were killed. Touré responded by relaxing restrictions on trading, offering amnesty to exiles (thousands of whom returned), and releasing hundreds of political prisoners. Relations with the Soviet bloc grew cooler, as Touré sought to increase Western aid and private investment for Guinea's sagging economy. He imprisoned or exiled his strongest opposition leaders. Over time, Touré arrested large numbers of suspected political opponents and imprisoned them in
concentration camp A concentration camp is a prison or other facility used for the internment of political prisoners or politically targeted demographics, such as members of national or ethnic minority groups, on the grounds of national security, or for exploitati ...
s, such as the notorious Camp Boiro. Following the discovery of mass graves in 2002, reports of 50,000 people being killed under the regime of Touré were widely disseminated by groups such as the Camp Boiro Memorial organization. Other estimates by scholars and international agencies report significantly lower casualties, with a US House of Representatives report placing the number around 5000. Domestically, Sékou Touré pursued socialist economic policies, including
nationalization Nationalization (nationalisation in British English) is the process of transforming privately owned assets into public assets by bringing them under the public ownership of a national government or state. Nationalization contrasts with p ...
s of banks, energy and transportation; in foreign affairs, he joined the
Non-Aligned Movement The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is a forum of 121 countries that Non-belligerent, are not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc. It was founded with the view to advancing interests of developing countries in the context of Cold W ...
and developed very close relations with
Mao Zedong Mao Zedong pronounced ; traditionally Romanization of Chinese, romanised as Mao Tse-tung. (26December 18939September 1976) was a Chinese politician, revolutionary, and political theorist who founded the People's Republic of China (PRC) in ...
and the
People's Republic of China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
. Once Guinea began its rapprochement with France in the late 1970s, Marxists among Touré's supporters began to oppose his government's shift toward
capitalist Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their use for the purpose of obtaining profit. This socioeconomic system has developed historically through several stages and is defined by ...
liberalisation. In 1978, Touré formally renounced Marxism and reestablished trade with the West. Single-list elections for an expanded National Assembly were held in 1980. Touré was elected unopposed to a fourth seven-year term as president on 9 May 1982. A new constitution was adopted that month, and during the summer Touré visited the United States. While in Washington, Touré urged for more American private investment in Guinea, and claimed that the country had "fabulous economic potential" due to its mineral reserves. This was taken by US diplomats to be a confession of the failure of Marxism. It was part of his economic policy change that led him to seek Western investment in order to develop Guinea's huge mineral reserves. At the same time, however, the annual average income of Guineans was US$140 (), life expectancy was only at 41 years, and the literacy rate was only 10%. Measures announced in 1983 brought further economic liberalization, including the delegation of produce marketing to private traders.


Death

Touré died of an apparent heart attack on 26 March 1984 while undergoing cardiac treatment in the
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, at the
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in
Cleveland Cleveland is a city in the U.S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Cuyahoga County. Located along the southern shore of Lake Erie, it is situated across the Canada–U.S. maritime border and approximately west of the Ohio-Pennsylvania st ...
,
Ohio Ohio ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. It borders Lake Erie to the north, Pennsylvania to the east, West Virginia to the southeast, Kentucky to the southwest, Indiana to the ...
, for emergency heart surgery; he had been rushed to the United States after being stricken in
Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in West Asia. Located in the centre of the Middle East, it covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula and has a land area of about , making it the List of Asian countries ...
the previous day. Touré's tomb is at the Camayanne Mausoleum, situated within the gardens of the Grand Mosque of Conakry. Prime Minister Louis Lansana Béavogui became acting president, pending elections that were to be held within 45 days. The Political Bureau of the ruling Guinea Democratic Party was due to name its choice as Touré's successor on 3 April 1984. Under the constitution, the PDG's new leader would have been automatically elected to a seven-year term as president and confirmed in office by the voters by the end of spring. Just hours before that meeting took place, the
military A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. Militaries are typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with their members identifiable by a d ...
seized power in a ''coup d'état''. They denounced the last years of Touré's rule as a "bloody and ruthless dictatorship." The constitution was suspended, the National Assembly dissolved, and the PDG abolished. Colonel
Lansana Conté Lansana Conté (; 30 November 1934 – 22 December 2008
, leader of the coup, assumed the presidency on 5 April, heading the Military Committee of National Restoration (''Comité Militaire de Redressement National''—CMRN). The
military junta A military junta () is a system of government led by a committee of military leaders. The term ''Junta (governing body), junta'' means "meeting" or "committee" and originated in the Junta (Peninsular War), national and local junta organized by t ...
freed about 1,000 political prisoners. In 1985 Conté took advantage of an alleged coup attempt to arrest and execute several of Sékou Touré's close associates, including Ismael Touré, Mamadi Keïta, Siaka Touré, former commander of Camp Boiro; and Moussa Diakité.


Desecration of Touré's tomb

On July 14, 2020, his grave was desecrated by an unknown person. According to a relative of the CEO of the GDR who went to the scene of the desecration, the individual set fire to the tricolor which was in the grave. Then he began to pour liquid into the burial place. The next day his widow lamented the act of desecration. She herself clarified that the mausoleum belongs to her clan and that it is abandoned without security, she considered hiring security personnel.


Awards and honours


Foreign awards and honours


Works by Touré (partial)

* Ahmed Sékou Touré. ''8 novembre 1964'' (Conakry) : Parti démocratique de Guinée, (1965) * ''A propos du Sahara Occidental : intervention du président Ahmed Sékou Touré devant le 17e sommet de l'OUA, Freetown, le 3 juillet 1980''. (S.l. : s.n., 1980) * Address of President Ahmed Sékou Touré, President of the Republic of : suggestions submitted during the West Africa consultative regional meeting held at Conakry, during 19 and 20 November 1971. (Cairo : Permanent Secretariat of the Afro-Asian Peoples' Solidarity Organization, 1971) * ''Afrika and imperialism''. Newark, N.J. : Jihad Pub. Co., 1973. * ''Conférences, discours et rapports,'' Conakry : Impr. du Gouvernement, (1958–) * Congres général de l'U.G.T.A.N. (Union général des travailleurs de l'Afrique noire) : Conakry, 15–18 janvier 1959 : rapport d'orientation et de doctrine. (Paris) : Présence africaine, c1959. * Discours de Monsieur Sékou Touré, Président du Conseil de Gouvernement des 28 juillet et 25 aout 1958, de Monsieur Diallo Saifoulaye, Président de l'Assemblée territoriale et du Général de Gaulle, Président du Gouvernement de la Républ (Conakry) : Guinée Française, (1958) * Doctrine and methods of the Democratic Party of Guinea (Conakry 1963). * Expérience guinéenne et unité africaine. Paris, Présence africaine (1959) * ''Guinée-Festival / commentaire et montage, Wolibo Dukuré dit Grand-pére''. Conakry : Commission Culturelle du Comité Central, 1983. * ''Guinée, prélude à l'indépendance (Avant-propos de Jacques Rabemananjara)'' Paris, Présence africaine (1958) * ''Hommage à la révolution Cubaine ; Message du camarade Ahmed Sekou Toure au peuple Cubain à l'occasion du 20e anniversaire de l'attaque de la Caserne de Moncada (Juillet 1973)''. Conakry : Bureau de Presse de la Presidence de la Republique, (1975). * Ahmed Sékou Touré. International policy and diplomatic action of the Democratic Party of Guinea; extracts from the report on doctrine and orientation submitted to the 3d National Conference of the P.D.G. (Cairo, Société Orientale de Publicité-Press, 1962) * Ahmed Sékou Touré. Opening speech of the Summit of Heads of State and Government by President Ahmed Sékou Touré, chairman of the Summit (November 20, 1980). (S.l. : s.n., 1980) * Ahmed Sékou Touré. Poèmes militants. (Conakry, Guinea) : Parti démocratique de Guinée, 1964 * Ahmed Sékou Touré. Political leader considered as the representative of a culture. (Newark, N. J. : Jihad Productions, 19--) * Ahmed Sékou Touré. ''Pour l'amitié algéro-guinéenne''. (Conakry, Guinea : Parti démocratique de Guinée, 1972) * ''Rapport de doctrine et de politique générale'', Conakry : Imprimerie Nationale, 1959. * ''Strategy and tactics of the revolution'', Conakry, Guinea : Press Office, 1978. * ''Unité nationale'', Conakry, République de Guinée (B.P. 1005, Conakry, République de Guinée) : Bureau de presse de la Présidence de la République, 1977.


See also

* Politics of Guinea * 1963 visit by Sékou Touré to the Republic of the Congo * Palais présidentiel Sekhoutoureah


References


Citations


Sources

* Henry Louis Gates, Anthony Appiah (eds). ''Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African'', "Ahmed Sékou Touré," pp. 1857–58. Basic Civitas Books (1999). * * Molefi K. Asante, Ama Mazama. ''Encyclopedia of Black Studies''. Sage Publications (2005) * Ibrahima Baba Kake. ''Sékou Touré. Le Héros et le Tyran''. Paris, 1987, JA Presses. Collection Jeune Afrique Livres. 254 p * Lansiné Kaba. "From Colonialism to Autocracy: Guinea under Sékou Touré, 1957–1984;" in ''Decolonization and African Independence, the Transfers of Power, 1960–1980''. Prosser Gifford and William Roger Louis (eds). New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988. * Phineas Malinga
"Ahmed Sékou Touré: An African Tragedy"
* Baruch Hirson
"The Misdirection of C.L.R. James"
''Communalism and Socialism in Africa,'' 1989. * John Leslie

'' International Socialism'' (1st series), No.1, Spring 1960, pp. 15–19. * Alpha Mohamed Sow, "Conflits ethnique dans un État révolutionnaire (Le cas Guinéen)", in ''Les ethnies ont une histoire,'' Jean-Pierre Chrétien, Gérard Prunier (ed), pp. 386–405, Karthala Editions (2003) * Parts of this article were translated from French Wikipedia's :fr:Ahmed Sékou Touré. ; News articles * "New West Africa Union Sealed By Heads of Ghana and Guinea" By Thomas F. Brady, ''
The New York Times ''The New York Times'' (''NYT'') is an American daily newspaper based in New York City. ''The New York Times'' covers domestic, national, and international news, and publishes opinion pieces, investigative reports, and reviews. As one of ...
''. May 2, 1959, p. 2 * Guinea Shuns Tie to World Blocs; But New State Gets Most Aid From East—Toure Departs for a Visit to the U. S. By John B. Oakes, ''The New York Times,'' October 25, 1959, p. 16, * Red Aid to Guinea Rises By Homer Bigart, ''The New York Times''. March 6, 1960, p. 4 * Henry Tanner. Regime in Guinea Seizes 2 Utilities; Toure Nationalizes Power and Water Supply Concerns—Pledges Compensation, ''The New York Times''. February 2, 1961, Thursday, p. 3 * Toure Says Reds Plotted a Coup; Links Communists to Riots by Students Last Month. (UPI), ''The New York Times''. December 13, 1961, Wednesday, p. 14 * Toure's Country--'Africa Incarnate'; Gui'nea embodies the emphatic nationalism and revolutionary hopes of ex-colonial Africa, but its energetic President confronts handicaps that are also typically African. Toure's Country--'Africa Incarnate' By David Halberstam, July 8, 1962, Sunday '' The New York Times Magazine'', p. 146 * Guinea Relaxes Business Curbs; Turns to Free Enterprise to Rescue Economy. (Reuters), ''The New York Times'', December 8, 1963, Sunday p. 24 * U.S. Peace Corps Ousted by Guinea; 72 Members and Dependents to Leave Within a Week By Richard Eder, ''The New York Times'', November 9, 1966, Wednesday, p. 11 * Guinea Is Warming West African Ties, ''The New York Times'', January 26, 1968, Friday, p. 52 * Alfred Friendly Jr. Toure Adopting a Moderate Tone; But West Africa Is Skeptical of Guinean's Words. ''The New York Times''. April 28, 1968, Sunday, p. 13 * Ebb of African 'Revolution', ''The New York Times'', December 7, 1968, Saturday p. 46 * Guinea's President Charges A Plot to Overthrow Him, (Agence France-Presse), ''The New York Times'', January 16, 1969, Thursday p. 10 * Guinea Reports 2 Members Of Cabinet Seized in Plot, (Reuters), ''The New York Times'', March 22, 1969, Saturday p. 14 * 12 Foes of Regime Doomed in Guinea, ''The New York Times'', May 16, 1969, Friday p. 2 * Guinea Reports Invasion From Sea by Portuguese; Lisbon Denies Charge U.N. Council Calls for End to Attack Guinea Reports an Invasion From Sea (Associated Press), ''The New York Times'', November 23, 1970, Monday, p. 1 * Guinea: Attack Strengthens Country's Symbolic Role, ''The New York Times'', November 29, 1970, Sunday, p. 194 * Guinean is Adamant On Death Sentences, ''The New York Times'', January 29, 1971, Friday. p. 3 * Guinea Wooing the West In Bauxite Development; Guinea is Seeking Help On Bauxite, ''The New York Times'', February 15, 1971, Monday Section: Business and Finance, p. 34 * Political Ferment Hurts Guinea, ''The New York Times'', January 31, 1972, Monday Section: Survey of Africa's Economy, p. 46 * Guinean, in Total Reversal, Asks More U.S. Investment by Bernard Weinraub, ''
The New York Times ''The New York Times'' (''NYT'') is an American daily newspaper based in New York City. ''The New York Times'' covers domestic, national, and international news, and publishes opinion pieces, investigative reports, and reviews. As one of ...
'', July 2, 1982, Friday Late City Final Edition, p. A3, Col. 5 * Guinea is Slowly Breaking Out of Its Tight Cocoon by Alan Cowell, ''The New York Times'', December 3, 1982, Friday, Late City Final Edition, p. A2, Col. 3 * In Revolutionary Guinea, Some of the Fire is Gone by Alan Cowell, ''The New York Times'', December 9, 1982, Thursday, Late City Final Edition, p. A2, Col. 3 * Guinea's president, Sekou Toure, Dies in Cleveland Clinic by Clifford D. May, ''The New York Times'', Obituary, March 28, 1984, Wednesday, Late City Final Edition, p. A1, Col. 1 * Thousands Mourn Death of Toure by Clifford D. May, ''The New York Times'', March 29, 1984, Thursday, Late City Final Edition, p. A3, Col. 1
Ahmed Sekou Toure, a Radical Hero
by Eric Pace, ''The New York Times'', Obituary, March 28, 1984, Wednesday, Late City Final Edition, p. A6, Col. 1 * In Post-Coup Guinea, a Jail is Thrown Open. Clifford D. May. ''The New York Times'', April 12, 1984, Thursday, Late City Final Edition, p.A1, Col. 4

''The New York Times'', March 29, 1984. * ttps://www.nytimes.com/1984/04/07/world/guinea-airport-opens-capital-appears-calm.html?sq=Sekou+Toure&scp=88&st=nyt Guinea Airport Opens; Capital Appears Calm ''The New York Times'', April 7, 1984.
Guinea Frees Toure's Widow
(Reuters), ''The New York Times'', January 3, 1988.

Howard W. French, ''The New York Times'', February 28, 1995.

Karen DeWitt, ''The New York Times'', April 14, 1996.

Michael T. Kaufman, ''The New York Times'', November 16, 1998.
'Mass graves' found in Guinea
BBC, 22 October 2002.

(Book Review), Robert Weisbrot, ''The New York Times Review of Books'', November 23, 2003. ; Other secondary sources * Graeme Counsel
"Popular music and politics in Sékou Touré's Guinea". ''Australasian Review of African Studies''. 26 (1), pp. 26–42. 2004
* Jean-Paul Alata
Prison d'Afrique
* Jean-Paul Alata

* Herve Hamon, Patrick Rotma

* Ladipo Adamolekun. "Sekou Toure's Guinea: An Experiment in Nation Building". Methuen (August 1976). * Koumandian Kéita

Nubia (1984). * Ibrahima Baba Kaké

Jeune Afrique, Paris (1987) * Alpha Abdoulaye Diallo
La vérité du ministre: Dix ans dans les geôles de Sékou Touré.
(Questions d'actualité), Calmann-Lévy, Paris (1985). * Kaba Camara 41

* Kindo Touré

* Adolf Marx

* Ousmane Ardo Bâ

Harmattan The Harmattan is a season in West Africa that occurs between the end of November and the middle of March. It is characterized by the dry and dusty northeasterly trade wind, of the same name, which blows from the Sahara over West Africa into th ...
, Paris (1986) * Mahmoud Bah
Construire la Guinée après Sékou Touré
* Mgr. Raymond-Marie Tchidimbo

* Amadou Diallo. ttps://web.archive.org/web/20141026032110/http://www.campboiro.org/bibliotheque/amadou_diallo/mort_telli_diallo/tdm.html La mort de Telli Diallo* Almamy Fodé Sylla
L'Itinéraire sanglant
* Comité Telli Diallo

* Alsény René Gomez

* Sako Kondé

* André Lewin

* Camara Laye
Dramouss
* Dr. Thierno Bah

* Nadine Bari

* Nadine Bari

* Nadine Bari

* Nadine Bari. Guinée. Les cailloux de la mémoire (2004) * Maurice Jeanjean. Nadine Bari

* Collectif Jeune Afrique

* Claude Abou Diakité. La Guinée enchaînée * Alpha Condé. Guinée, néo-colonie américaine ou Albanie d'Afrique * Lansiné Kaba. From colonialism to autocracy. Guinea under Sékou Touré: 1957–1984 * Charles E. Sory. Sékou Touré, l'ange exterminateur * Charles Diané. Sékou Touré, l'homme et son régime : lettre ouverte au président Mitterrand * Emile Tompapa. Sékou Touré : quarante ans de dictature * Alpha Ousmane Barry. Pouvoir du discours et discours du pouvoir : l'art oratoire chez Sékou Touré de 1958 à 1984


External links





Publishes full text of books and articles as well photos of Sekou Toure
Camp Boiro Memorial
Extensive list of reports and articles on the notorious political prison where thousands of victims of the dictatorship of Sekou Toure disappeared between 1960 and 1984.
More information about Ahmed Sékou Touré (French)

BBC Radio: President Sekou Toure Defends One-Party Rule
(1959).
Conflict history: Guinea
11 May 2007. International Crisis Group.
1st page on the French National Assembly website

2nd page on the French National Assembly website
{{DEFAULTSORT:Toure, Ahmed Sekou 1922 births 1984 deaths People from Faranah People of French West Africa Mandinka Guinean Muslims Rassemblement Démocratique Africain politicians Democratic Party of Guinea – African Democratic Rally politicians Presidents of Guinea Deputies of the 3rd National Assembly of the French Fourth Republic Members of Parliament for French West Africa Guinean pan-Africanists Muslim socialists Recipients of the Lenin Peace Prize Collars of the Order of the White Lion Recipients of the Order of the Companions of O. R. Tambo Grand Crosses Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany Burials in Guinea Politicide perpetrators Deaths in Ohio