The Dongyi or Eastern Yi () was a collective term for ancient peoples found in Chinese records. The definition of Dongyi varied across the ages, but in most cases referred to inhabitants of eastern China, then later, the Korean peninsula and Japanese Archipelago. Dongyi refers to different group of people in different periods. As such, the name "Yí" was something of a catch-all and was applied to different groups over time. According to the earliest Chinese record, the ''

Zuo Zhuan The ''Zuo Zhuan'' ( zh, t=左傳, w=Tso Chuan; ), often translated as ''The Zuo Tradition'' or as ''The Commentary of Zuo'', is an ancient Chinese narrative history traditionally regarded as a commentary on the ancient Chinese chronicle the '' ...

'', the

Shang dynasty The Shang dynasty (), also known as the Yin dynasty (), was a Chinese royal dynasty that ruled in the Yellow River valley during the second millennium BC, traditionally succeeding the Xia dynasty and followed by the Western Zhou d ...

was attacked by

King Wu of Zhou King Wu of Zhou (; died ), personal name Ji Fa, was the founding king of the Chinese Zhou dynasty. The chronology of his reign is disputed but is generally thought to have begun around 1046 BCE and ended with his death three years later. Ki ...

while attacking the Dongyi and collapsed afterward.

Ancient inhabitants of Eastern China

Oracle bone Oracle bones are pieces of ox scapula and turtle plastron which were used in pyromancya form of divinationduring the Late Shang period () in ancient China. '' Scapulimancy'' is the specific term if ox scapulae were used for the divination, ''p ...

inscriptions from the early 11th century BCE refer to campaigns by the late Shang king Di Yi against the ''Rénfāng'' (), a group occupying the area of southern

Shandong Shandong is a coastal Provinces of China, province in East China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history since the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River. It has served as a pivotal cultural ...

and

Jianghuai Jianghuai (; pinyin: Jiānghuái) is a geographical area in China referring to the plain between the area north of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River and near the lower reaches of the Huai River Basin, especially in northern Jiangsu, northe ...

(northern

Anhui Anhui is an inland Provinces of China, province located in East China. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze and Huai rivers, bordering Jiangsu and Zhejiang to the east, Jiang ...

and

Jiangsu Jiangsu is a coastal Provinces of the People's Republic of China, province in East China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with its capital in Nanjing. Jiangsu is the List of Chinese administra ...

). Many Chinese archaeologists apply the historical name "Dongyi" to the archaeological

Yueshi culture The Yueshi culture () was an archaeological culture in the Shandong region of eastern China, dated from 1900 to 1500 BC. It spanned the period from the Late Neolithic to the early Bronze Age. In the Shandong area, it followed the Longshan cultur ...

(1900–1500 BCE). Other scholars, such as Fang Hui, consider this identification problematic because of the high frequency of migrations in prehistoric populations of the region.

''Yi'' (夷)

The Chinese word ''yí'' in ''Dōngyí'' has a long history and complex semantics.

Characters

The modern Chinese

regular script The regular script is the newest of the major Chinese script styles, emerging during the Three Kingdoms period , and stylistically mature by the 7th century. It is the most common style used in modern text. In its traditional form it is the t ...

character for ''yí'' combines

radicals Radical (from Latin: ', root) may refer to: Politics and ideology Politics *Classical radicalism, the Radical Movement that began in late 18th century Britain and spread to continental Europe and Latin America in the 19th century *Radical politics ...

(recurring character elements) ''da'' 大 "big" and ''gong'' 弓 "bow", which are also seen in the

seal script Seal script or sigillary script () is a Chinese script styles, style of writing Chinese characters that was common throughout the latter half of the 1st millennium BC. It evolved organically out of bronze script during the Zhou dynasty (1 ...

. However, ''yí'' was written in the earlier

bronze script Chinese bronze inscriptions, also referred to as bronze script or bronzeware script, comprise Chinese writing made in several styles on ritual bronzes mainly during the Late Shang dynasty () and Western Zhou dynasty (771 BC). Types of bron ...

as a person wrapped with something, and in the earliest

oracle bone script Oracle bone script is the oldest attested form of written Chinese, dating to the late 2nd millennium BC. Inscriptions were made by carving characters into oracle bones, usually either the shoulder bones of oxen or the plastrons of turtl ...

as a person with a bent back and legs. The (121 CE) ''

Shuowen Jiezi The ''Shuowen Jiezi'' is a Chinese dictionary compiled by Xu Shen , during the Eastern Han dynasty (25–220 CE). While prefigured by earlier reference works for Chinese characters like the ''Erya'' (), the ''Shuowen Jiezi'' contains the ...

'' character dictionary, defines ''yí'' as "people of the east, big 大 bow 弓" . Elsewhere in the ''Shuowen Jiezi'', under the entry of ''qiang'' , the term ''yí'' is associated with benevolence and human longevity. ''Yí'' countries are therefore virtuous places where people live long lives. This is why Confucius wanted to go to ''yí'' countries when the ''dao'' could not be realized in the central states. The scholar Léon Wieger provided multiple definitions to the term ''yí'': "The men 大 armed with bows 弓, the primitive inhabitants, barbarians, borderers of the Eastern Sea, inhabitants of the South-West countries."

Bernhard Karlgren Klas Bernhard Johannes Karlgren (; 15 October 1889 – 20 October 1978) was a Swedish sinologist and linguist who pioneered the study of Chinese historical phonology using modern comparative methods. In the early 20th century, Karlgren conduct ...

says that in the bronze script for ''yí'' inscribed on

Zhou dynasty The Zhou dynasty ( ) was a royal dynasty of China that existed for 789 years from until 256 BC, the longest span of any dynasty in Chinese history. During the Western Zhou period (771 BC), the royal house, surnamed Ji, had military ...

(c. 1045 BCE – c. 256 BCE)

Chinese bronze inscriptions Chinese bronze inscriptions, also referred to as bronze script or bronzeware script, comprise Chinese writing made in several styles on ritual bronzes mainly during the Late Shang dynasty () and Western Zhou dynasty (771 BC). Types of bron ...

, "The graph has 'man' and 'arrow', or 'arrow' with something wound around the shaft." The Yi, or Dongyi, are associated with the bow and arrow: K. C. Wu says the modern character designating the historical "Yí peoples", is composed of the characters for 大 "big (person)" and 弓 "bow"; which implies a big person carrying a bow, and also that this old form of this Chinese Character was composed with an association of a particular group of people with the use of the bow in mind. Some classic Chinese history records like ''

'', ''

Classic of Rites The ''Book of Rites'', also known as the ''Liji'', is a collection of texts describing the social forms, administration, and ceremonial rites of the Zhou dynasty as they were understood in the Warring States and the early Han periods. The '' ...

'', all have some similar records about this. The earliest records of ''yi'' were inscribed on

oracle bones Oracle bones are pieces of ox scapula and turtle plastron which were used in pyromancya form of divinationduring the Late Shang period () in ancient China. '' Scapulimancy'' is the specific term if ox scapulae were used for the divination, '' ...

dating from the late

(c. 1600 – c. 1046 BCE). This oracle bone script was used interchangeably for ''yí'' 夷, ''rén'' "human", and ''shī'' "corpse; personator of the dead; inactive; lay out". The archeologist and scholar

Guo Moruo Guo Moruo (November 16, 1892 – June 12, 1978), courtesy name Dingtang, was a Chinese author, poet, historian, archaeologist, and government official. Biography Family history Guo Moruo, originally named Guo Kaizhen, was born on November 10 or ...

believed the oracle graph for ''yi'' denotes "a dead body, i.e., the killed enemy", while the bronze graph denotes "a man bound by a rope, i.e., a prisoner or slave". The historical linguist Xu Zhongshu explains this oracle character depicts either a "corpse"' with two bent legs or a "barbarian" custom of sitting with one's legs stretched out instead of the Chinese norm of squatting on one's heels. The early China historian Li Feng says the Western Zhou bronze graph for ''Yí'' was "differentiated from ''rén'' 人 (human) by its kneeling gesture, clearly implying a population that was deemed a potential source of slaves or servants", thus meaning "foreign conquerable". Axel Schuessler hypothesizes an Old Chinese etymological development from *''li'' 夷 "extend; expose; display; set out; spread out" to *''lhi'' 尸 "to spread out; lie down flat (in order to sleep); motionless; to set forth (sacrificial dishes)", to "personator of a dead ancestor", and to "corpse".

Etymology and linguistic classification

Historical linguists have tentatively reconstructed ''yí'' 夷's ancient pronunciations and

etymology Etymology ( ) is the study of the origin and evolution of words—including their constituent units of sound and meaning—across time. In the 21st century a subfield within linguistics, etymology has become a more rigorously scientific study. ...

. The

Modern Standard Chinese Standard Chinese ( zh, s=现代标准汉语, t=現代標準漢語, p=Xiàndài biāozhǔn hànyǔ, l=modern standard Han speech) is a modern Standard language, standard form of Mandarin Chinese that was first codified during the Republic of ...

pronunciation ''yí'' descends from (c. 6th–9th centuries CE)

Middle Chinese Middle Chinese (formerly known as Ancient Chinese) or the Qieyun system (QYS) is the historical variety of Chinese language, Chinese recorded in the ''Qieyun'', a rime dictionary first published in 601 and followed by several revised and expande ...

and (c. 6th–3rd centuries BCE)

Old Chinese Old Chinese, also called Archaic Chinese in older works, is the oldest attested stage of Chinese language, Chinese, and the ancestor of all modern varieties of Chinese. The earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones ...

. Middle and Old Chinese reconstructions of ''yí'' 夷 "barbarian; spread out" include ''i'' < *''djər'', ''yij'' < *''ljɨj'', ''jiɪ'' < *''lil'', and ''ji'' < *''ləi''. As to the most recent reconstruction,

William H. Baxter William Hubbard Baxter III (born March 3, 1949) is an American linguist specializing in the history of the Chinese language and best known for his work on the reconstruction on Old Chinese. Biography Baxter earned his Ph.D. in Linguistics in 19 ...

and

Laurent Sagart Laurent Sagart (; born 1951) is a senior researcher at the Centre de recherches linguistiques sur l'Asie orientale (CRLAO – UMR 8563) unit of the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS). Biography Born in Paris in 1951, he earned ...

(2014) reconstruct the

name of ''yí'' 夷 as *''ləj''. As Yuèjuèshū () states that the Yue word for "sea" is also 夷 (*''li'' → ''yí''), Sinologist Axel Schuessler proposes an Austroasiatic etymology for the ethnonym *''li'' by comparing to Khmer ''dnle'' "sea", from Pre-Angkorian

Old Khmer Old Khmer is the oldest attested stage of the Khmer language, an Austroasiatic language historically and presently spoken across Cambodia, Southern Vietnam, and parts of Thailand and Laos. It is recorded in inscriptions dating from the early 7th ...

''danle(y)'' "large expanse of water"; thus, the ethnonym might have referred to a people living by the sea. When analyzing possible Austroasiatic loanwords into Old Chinese, Schuessler noticed that one layer of loanwords—those from one or more Austroasiatic language(s) into Old Chinese spoken in the

Yellow River The Yellow River, also known as Huanghe, is the second-longest river in China and the List of rivers by length, sixth-longest river system on Earth, with an estimated length of and a Drainage basin, watershed of . Beginning in the Bayan H ...

basin—showed affinities to modern Khmeric and Khmuic languages, and occasionally to Monic. Earlier, Edwin G. Pulleyblank (1983, 1999) also proposed that the Yi were Austroasiatic speakers.

(2008) instead suggested that the Yi languages were ancestral to

Austronesian languages The Austronesian languages ( ) are a language family widely spoken throughout Maritime Southeast Asia, parts of Mainland Southeast Asia, Madagascar, the islands of the Pacific Ocean and Taiwan (by Taiwanese indigenous peoples). They are spoken ...

and formed a sister-group to

Sino-Tibetan Sino-Tibetan (also referred to as Trans-Himalayan) is a family of more than 400 languages, second only to Indo-European in number of native speakers. Around 1.4 billion people speak a Sino-Tibetan language. The vast majority of these are the 1.3 ...

. However, no such macrofamily consisting of Sino-Tibetan and Austronesian has been accepted in mainstream

comparative linguistics Comparative linguistics is a branch of historical linguistics that is concerned with comparing languages to establish their historical relatedness. Genetic relatedness implies a common origin or proto-language and comparative linguistics aim ...

Usages

The sinologist Edwin G. Pulleyblank describes how ''Yi'' usages semantically changed. "Their name furnished the primary Chinese term for 'barbarian' and is sometimes used in such a generalized sense as early as the Spring and Autumn period. At the same time, it continued to have a specific reference, denoting especially the Yi of the Huai River region, who constituted a recognized political entity. Paradoxically the Yi was considered the most 'civilized' of the non-Chinese peoples."

Pre-Qin usages

It is not easy to determine people's times that a

Classical Chinese Classical Chinese is the language in which the classics of Chinese literature were written, from . For millennia thereafter, the written Chinese used in these works was imitated and iterated upon by scholars in a form now called Literary ...

document reflects. Literature describing a pre-

Xia dynasty The Xia dynasty (; ) is the first dynasty in traditional Chinese historiography. According to tradition, it was established by the legendary figure Yu the Great, after Emperor Shun, Shun, the last of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors, Fiv ...

period does not use the character ''Yi''. As for the Xià dynasty, some groups of people are referred to as the Yi. For example, the '' Yu Gong'' chapter of the ''Shu Ji'' or ''

Book of Documents The ''Book of Documents'' ( zh, p=Shūjīng, c=書經, w=Shu King) or the ''Classic of History'', is one of the Five Classics of ancient Chinese literature. It is a collection of rhetorical prose attributed to figures of ancient China, a ...

'' terms people in Qingzhou and Xuzhou Laiyi (), Yuyi () and Huaiyi (). Another Yi-related term is Jiu-Yi (), literally ''Nine Yi'', which could have also had the connotation ''The Numerous Yi'' or ''The Many Different Kinds of Yi'', and which appears in a passage in The

Analects The ''Analects'', also known as the ''Sayings of Confucius'', is an ancient Chinese philosophical text composed of sayings and ideas attributed to Confucius and his contemporaries, traditionally believed to have been compiled by his followers. ...

that reads, "The Master (i.e.,

Confucius Confucius (; pinyin: ; ; ), born Kong Qiu (), was a Chinese philosopher of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. Much of the shared cultural heritage of the Sinosphere originates in the phil ...

) desired to live among the Nine Yi." The term "Dongyi" is not used for this period.

oracle shell and bone writings record ''yi'' but not ''Dongyi''. Shima Kunio's concordance of oracle inscriptions lists twenty occurrences of the script for 夷 or 尸, most frequently (6 times) in the compound ''zhishi'' 祉尸 "bless the personator; blessed personator". Michael Carr notes some contexts are ambiguous, but suggests, "Three compounds refer to 'barbarians' (in modern characters, ''fayi'' 伐夷 'attack barbarians', ''zhengyi'' 征夷 'punish barbarians', and ''yifang'' 夷方 'barbarian regions')." Oracle inscriptions record that Shang King

Wu Ding Wu Ding (; died ); personal name (), was a king of the Chinese Shang dynasty who ruled the central Yellow River valley. He is the earliest figure in Chinese history mentioned in contemporary records. The annals of the Shang dynasty compiled by l ...

(r. c. 1250–1192 BCE) made military expeditions on the Yi, and King Di Xin (r. c. 1075–1046 BCE) waged a massive campaign against the Yifang 夷方 "barbarian regions". It appears that the Yifang (夷方) were the same people as Huaiyi (淮夷

Huai River The Huai River, formerly romanized as the Hwai, is a major river in East China, about long with a drainage area of . It is located about midway between the Yellow River and Yangtze River, the two longest rivers and largest drainage basins ...

Yi), Nanhuaiyi (南淮夷 Southern Huai Yi ), Nanyi (南夷 Southern Yi in

Yangtze River Delta The Yangtze Delta or Yangtze River Delta (YRD), once known as the Shanghai Economic Zone, is a megalopolis generally comprising the Wu-speaking areas of Shanghai, southern Jiangsu, northern Zhejiang, southern Anhui. The area lies in the he ...

) and Dongyi (東夷 Eastern Yi /

Yi) according to bronzeware inscriptions of the Western Zhou dynasty. The

attempted to keep the Yi under its control. The most notable example is the successful campaign against the Huaiyi and the Dongyi led by the

Duke of Zhou Dan, Duke Wen of Zhou, commonly known as the Duke of Zhou, was a member of the royal family of the early Zhou dynasty who played a major role in consolidating the kingdom established by his elder brother King Wu. He was renowned for acting as ...

. On the other hand, historian Huang Yang notes that in the Shang period, "the term ''Yi'' probably did not carry the sense of 'barbarian'. Rather it simply denoted one of the many tribes or regions that were the target of the Shang military campaigns ... Therefore, we see that the ''Yi'' might have been a certain tribe or group of people that was neighboring the Shang." During the

Spring and Autumn period The Spring and Autumn period () was a period in History of China, Chinese history corresponding roughly to the first half of the Eastern Zhou (256 BCE), characterized by the gradual erosion of royal power as local lords nominally subject t ...

, Jin, Zheng, Qi and

Song A song is a musical composition performed by the human voice. The voice often carries the melody (a series of distinct and fixed pitches) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs have a structure, such as the common ABA form, and are usu ...

tried to seize control of the Huai River basin, which the Huaiyi occupied. Still, the region ultimately fell under the influence of

Chu Chu or CHU may refer to: Chinese history * Chu (state) (c. 1030 BC–223 BC), a state during the Zhou dynasty * Western Chu (206 BC–202 BC), a state founded and ruled by Xiang Yu * Chu Kingdom (Han dynasty) (201 BC–70 AD), a kingdom of the H ...

to the south. Simultaneously, people in the east and south ceased to be called Dongyi as they founded their own states. These Yifang states included the states of Xu, Lai, Zhongli, Ju and Jiang. The small state of Jie was based around present-day Jiaozhou.. The state of Xu occupied large areas of modern

and

provinces between the Huai and Yangtze Rivers. Eventually, after warring with Chu and Wu, it was conquered by the

State of Wu Wu () was a state during the Western Zhou dynasty and the Spring and Autumn period, outside the Zhou cultural sphere. It was also known as Gouwu () or Gongwu () from the pronunciation of the local language. Wu was located at the mouth of th ...

in 512 BCE. Chu annexed the State of Jiang, destroyed the State of Ju, whose territory was annexed by the State of Qi. Recent archaeological excavations reveal that the State of Xu's presence extended to western Jiangxi in modern Jing'an County. This includes bronzeware inscriptions about the State of Xu and a tomb with many nanmu coffins containing sacrificial female victims. Dongyi customs include burials with many sacrificial victims and veneration of the sun. References to Dongyi became ideological during the

Warring States period The Warring States period in history of China, Chinese history (221 BC) comprises the final two and a half centuries of the Zhou dynasty (256 BC), which were characterized by frequent warfare, bureaucratic and military reforms, and ...

, owing to cultural changes in Chinese concepts of Self and Other. When the (c. 4th BCE) ''

'' recorded stereotypes about the ''

Siyi The Siyi (Seiyap or Sze Yup in Cantonese; ) refers to the four former counties of Xinhui (Sunwui), Taishan, Guangdong, Taishan (Toisan), Kaiping (Hoiping) and Enping (Yanping) on the west side of the Pearl River Delta in Southern Guangdong, Guan ...

'' "Four Barbarians" (''Dongyi'', ''Xirong'', ''Nanman'', and ''Beidi'') in the four directions, ''Dongyi'' had acquired a clearly pejorative nuance.

The people of those five regions – the Middle states, and the ong i (and other wild tribes around them) – had all their several natures, which they could not be made to alter. The tribes on the east were called i They had their hair unbound and tattooed their bodies. Some of them ate their food without it being cooked. Those on the south were called Man. They tattooed their foreheads and had their feet turned in towards each other. Some of them (also) ate their food without it being cooked. Those on the west were called ong They had their hair unbound and wore skins. Some of them did not eat grain-food. Those on the north were called i They wore skins of animals and birds and dwelt in caves. Some of them also did not eat grain-food. The people of the Middle States, and of those i Man, ong and i all had their dwellings, where they lived at ease; their flavors which they preferred; the clothes suitable for them; their proper implements for use; and their vessels which they prepared in abundance. In those five regions, the people's languages were not mutually intelligible, and their likings and desires were different. To make what was in their minds apprehended, and to communicate their likings and desires, (there were officers) – in the east, called transmitters; in the south, representations; in the west, i-dis and in the north, interpreters.

Post-Qin usages

The more "

China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...

" expanded, the further east the term "Dongyi" was applied to. The ''

Records of the Grand Historian The ''Shiji'', also known as ''Records of the Grand Historian'' or ''The Grand Scribe's Records'', is a Chinese historical text that is the first of the Twenty-Four Histories of imperial China. It was written during the late 2nd and early 1st ce ...

'' by

Sima Qian Sima Qian () was a Chinese historian during the early Han dynasty. He is considered the father of Chinese historiography for the ''Shiji'' (sometimes translated into English as ''Records of the Grand Historian''), a general history of China cov ...

uses the term "Manyi" (), but not "Dongyi". It puts the section of "Xinanyi (southwestern Yi) liezhuan (biographies)", but not "Dongyi liezhuan". The ''

Book of Han The ''Book of Han'' is a history of China finished in 111 CE, covering the Western, or Former Han dynasty from the first emperor in 206 BCE to the fall of Wang Mang in 23 CE. The work was composed by Ban Gu (32–92 CE), ...

'' does not put this section either but calls a Dongye () chief in the Korean Peninsula as Dongyi. The ''

Book of Later Han The ''Book of the Later Han'', also known as the ''History of the Later Han'' and by its Chinese name ''Hou Hanshu'' (), is one of the Twenty-Four Histories and covers the history of the Han dynasty from 6 to 189 CE, a period known as the Late ...

'' puts the section of "Dongyi liezhuan (東夷列傳)" and covers

Buyeo Buyeo (; ; ), also rendered as Puyŏ or Fuyu, was an ancient kingdom that was centered in northern Manchuria in modern-day northeast China. It had ties to the Yemaek people, who are considered to be the ancestors of modern Koreans. Buyeo is ...

Yilou Yilou is the modern Chinese name of a people in 3rd- to 6th-century Manchuria. In some sources, their name was also written as Sushen, after an earlier people that were traditionally thought to be from the same region. Although it is common to ...

Goguryeo Goguryeo (37 BC – 668 AD) (; ; Old Korean: Guryeo) also later known as Goryeo (; ; Middle Korean: 고ᇢ롕〮, ''kwòwlyéy''), was a Korean kingdom which was located on the northern and central parts of the Korea, Korean Peninsula an ...

, Eastern Okjeo, Hui,

Samhan Samhan, or Three Han (), is the collective name of the Byeonhan, Jinhan, and Mahan confederacies that emerged in the first century BC during the Proto–Three Kingdoms of Korea, or Samhan, period. Located in the central and southern regions o ...

and Wa, in other words, eastern

Manchuria Manchuria is a historical region in northeast Asia encompassing the entirety of present-day northeast China and parts of the modern-day Russian Far East south of the Uda (Khabarovsk Krai), Uda River and the Tukuringra-Dzhagdy Ranges. The exact ...

Korea Korea is a peninsular region in East Asia consisting of the Korean Peninsula, Jeju Island, and smaller islands. Since the end of World War II in 1945, it has been politically Division of Korea, divided at or near the 38th parallel north, 3 ...

Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...

and some other islands. The ''

Book of Jin The ''Book of Jin'' is an official Chinese historical text covering the history of the Jin dynasty (266–420), Jin dynasty from 266 to 420. It was compiled in 648 by a number of officials commissioned by the imperial court of the Tang dynasty, ...

'' positioned Dongyi inside the section of "Siyi" (barbarians in four directions) along with "Xirong", "Nanman", and "Beidi". The ''Book of Sui'', the ''Book of Tang'' and the ''New Book of Tang'' adopt the section of "Dongyi" and covers eastern Manchuria, Korea, Japan, and, optionally, Sakhalin and Taiwan. During the Song dynasty, the official history books replaced Dongyi with Waiguo () and Waiyi ().

Other usage of Dongyi in Chinese history books

;

and

: These two history books do not assign many chapters to describe the history of Dongyi. However, it includes the simple description

Wiman Joseon Wiman Joseon (194–108 BC) was a dynasty of Gojoseon. It began with Wiman's (Wei Man) seizure of the throne from Gija Joseon's King Jun and ended with the death of King Ugeo who was a grandson of Wiman. Apart from archaeological data, the ma ...

and Wa. Wiman fled from the

state of Yan Yan (; Old Chinese pronunciation: ''*'') was an ancient Chinese state during the Zhou dynasty. Its capital was Ji (later known as Yanjing and now Beijing). During the Warring States period, the court was also moved to another capital at Xia ...

Gojoseon Gojoseon (; ), contemporary name Joseon (; ), was the first kingdom on the Korea, Korean Peninsula. According to Korean mythology, the kingdom was established by the legendary king Dangun. Gojoseon possessed the most advanced culture in th ...

, and he disguised himself as a

person.

uses the same term as Records of the Grand Historian. ;

Book of the Later Han The ''Book of the Later Han'', also known as the ''History of the Later Han'' and by its Chinese name ''Hou Hanshu'' (), is one of the Twenty-Four Histories and covers the history of the Han dynasty from 6 to 189 CE, a period known as the Lat ...

: This book was written by Fan Ye. This book contains the chapter of 'Dongyi', which describes the history of

and

including

Okjeo Okjeo () was an History of Korea, ancient Korean tribal state which arose in the northern Korea, Korean peninsula from perhaps the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE. Dong-okjeo (Eastern Okjeo) occupied roughly the area of the Hamgyong Provin ...

, Dongye, and

, and

including Wa. Like the ''Shuowen Jiezi'', the Book of the Later Han also describes ''Dongyi'' countries as places where benevolence rules and the gentlemen do not die. ;

Records of Three Kingdoms The ''Records of the Three Kingdoms'' is a Chinese official history written by Chen Shou in the late 3rd century CE, covering the end of the Han dynasty (220 CE) and the subsequent Three Kingdoms period (220–280 CE). It is regarded ...

: This book was written by Chen Shou, and also contains the chapter about 'Dongyi'. The chapter of "Wuwan Xianbei Dongyi" describes the Wuwan tribes, Xianbei tribes, and Dongyi tribes. In the section of Dongyi, this book explains the

n and

ese ancient kingdoms. Korean and

n kingdoms include

, Dongye, and

. Japanese kingdom includes

Wa (Japan) Wa is the oldest attested name of Japan and ethnonym of the Japanese people. From Chinese and Korean scribes used the Chinese character to refer to the various inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago, although it might have been just used t ...

. ;

: This book was written by Fang Xuanling during the Tang dynasty. It has the chapter of 'Four Yi' and describes the

n, Korean, and Japanese history. Manchurian, Korean and Japanese include

, Mahan confederacy,

Jinhan confederacy Jinhan () was a loose confederacy of chiefdoms that existed from around the 1st century BCE to the 4th century CE in the southern Korean peninsula, to the east of the Nakdong River valley, Gyeongsang Province. Jinhan was one of the Samhan (or "T ...

Sushen Sushen is the historical Chinese name for an ancient ethnic group of people who lived in the northeastern part of China (in the area of modern Jilin and Heilongjiang) and what is in modern times the Russian Maritime Province and some other Si ...

, and

. ;

Book of Song The ''Book of Song'' (''Sòng Shū'') is a historical text of the Liu Song dynasty of the Southern Dynasties of China. It covers history from 420 to 479, and is one of the Twenty-Four Histories, a traditional collection of historical records. ...

: This history book describes the history of

Liu Song dynasty Song, known as Liu Song (), Former Song (前宋) or Song of (the) Southern dynasties (南朝宋) in historiography, was an imperial dynasty of China and the first of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties peri ...

and contains a simple explanation of the neighboring states. The Chapter of Dongyi of this book describes the ancient history of

and

such as

Baekje Baekje or Paekche (; ) was a Korean kingdom located in southwestern Korea from 18 BCE to 660 CE. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla. While the three kingdoms were in separate existence, Baekje had the h ...

and

. ;

Book of Qi The ''Book of Qi'' (''Qí Shū'') or ''Book of Southern Qi'' (''Nán Qí Shū'') is a history of the Chinese dynasty Southern Qi covering the period from 479 to 502, and is one of the Twenty-Four Histories of Chinese history. It was written by ...

: The Book of Qi is the history book of

Southern Qi Qi, known in historiography as the Southern Qi ( or ) or Xiao Qi (), was a Chinese imperial dynasty and the second of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties era. It followed the Liu Song dynasty and was succee ...

. In the 58th volume, the history of Dongyi's history is described, which includes the ancient Manchurian, Korean, and Japanese history such as

, Gaya and

. ; History of Southern Dynasties : This book is about the history of Liu Song, Southern Qi, Liang dynasty, and Chen dynasty and includes the history of Dongyi. In the chapter of Dongyi, this book describes the Manchurian, Korean, and Japanese history such as

Silla Silla (; Old Korean: wikt:徐羅伐#Old Korean, 徐羅伐, Yale romanization of Korean, Yale: Syerapel, Revised Romanization of Korean, RR: ''Seorabeol''; International Phonetic Alphabet, IPA: ) was a Korean kingdom that existed between ...

, and so on. This book says that Dongyi's state was

while Sima Qian says that Gojoseon people is Manyi. ;

Book of Sui The ''Book of Sui'' () is the official history of the Sui dynasty, which ruled China in the years AD 581–618. It ranks among the official Twenty-Four Histories of imperial China. It was written by Yan Shigu, Kong Yingda, and Zhangsun Wuji, ...

: The

describes the history of the

Sui dynasty The Sui dynasty ( ) was a short-lived Dynasties of China, Chinese imperial dynasty that ruled from 581 to 618. The re-unification of China proper under the Sui brought the Northern and Southern dynasties era to a close, ending a prolonged peri ...

, and was compiled at

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...

. The chapter of Dongyi's history describes the history of Korean, Manchurian and Japanese such as

, Mohe, Liuqiu, and

.欽定四庫全書, 隋書卷八十一, 列傳第四十六, 東夷

Ancient states with ''Dongyi'' (東夷) and/or ''Huaiyi'' (淮夷)

* 大彭 Dapeng (state) (?–1060 BC) * 譚國 Tan (state) (1046 BC–684 BC) * 萊國 Lai (state) (?–567 BC) * 徐國 Xu (state) (?–512 BC) * 姑蔑 Gumie (?–480 BC) * 莒國 Ju (state) (1046 BC–431 BC) * 邹國 Zou (state) (1046 BC–350 BC)

References

Citations

Sources

* Baxter, William H. 1992. ''A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology''. Mouton de Gruyter. * Cai Fengshu 蔡鳳書, ''Kodai Santō bunka to kōryū'' 古代山東文化と交流, Higashi Ajia to hantō kūkan 東アジアと『半島空間』, pp. 45–58, 2003. * Carr, Michael. 2007. "The ''Shi'' 'Corpse/Personator' Ceremony in Early China," in Marcel Kuijsten, ed., ''Reflections on the Dawn of Consciousness:

Julian Jaynes Julian Jaynes (February 27, 1920 – November 21, 1997) was an American psychologist who worked at the universities of Yale and Princeton for nearly 25 years and became best known for his 1976 book '' The Origin of Consciousness in the Break ...

's Bicameral Mind Theory Revisited'', Julian Jaynes Society, 343–416. * Karlgren, Bernhard. 1957. ''Grammata Serica Recensa''. Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities. * Li, Feng. 2006.
Landscape And Power In Early China
'. Cambridge University Press. * Li Xiaoding 李孝定. 1965. ''Jiagu wenzi zhishi'' 甲骨文字集釋 ollected Explanations of Shell and Bone Characters 8 Vols. The Institute of History and Philology. * * Luan Fengshi 栾丰实, 论“夷”和“东夷” (On "Yi" and "Dong Yi"), Zhongyuan Wenwu 中原文物 (Cultural Relics of Central China), 2002.1, pp. 16–20. * Matsumaru Michio 松丸道雄, ''Kanji kigen mondai no shintenkai'' 漢字起源問題の新展開, Chūgoku kodai no moji to bunka 中国古代の文字と文化, 1999. * Matsumaru Michio 松丸道雄 and Takashima Ken'ichi 高嶋謙一 eds., Kōkotsumoji Jishaku Sōran 甲骨文字字釋綜覽, 1994. * Schuessler, Axel. 2007. ''An Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese''. University of Hawaii Press. * Schuessler, Axel. 2009. ''Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese''. University of Hawaii Press. * Shima Kunio 島邦男. 1971. ''Inkyo bokuji sōorui'' 殷墟卜辞綜類 oncordance of Oracle Writings from the Ruins of Yin 2nd rev. ed. Hoyu. * Shirakawa Shizuka 白川静, Jitō 字統, 2004. * Tang Jiahong 唐嘉弘, 东夷及其历史地位, Shixue yuekan 史学月刊, 1989.4, pp. 37–46. * Wu, K. C. (1982). ''The Chinese Heritage''. New York: Crown Publishers. . * Xu Guanghui 徐光輝, ''Kodai no bōgyo shūraku to seidōki bunka no kōryū'' 古代の防御集落と青銅器文化の交流, Higashi Ajia to hantō kūkan 東アジアと『半島空間』, pp. 21–44, 2003. * Xu Zhongshu 徐中舒, ed. 1988. Jiaguwen zidian甲骨文字典 hell and Bone (i.e., Oracle) Character Dictionary Sichuan Cishu. *

External links

东夷文化及对中华文化的贡献
{{Historical Non-Chinese peoples in China Ancient peoples of China Xia dynasty Shang dynasty Zhou dynasty History of Shandong History of Jiangsu History of Anhui