Hejaz is a

historical region History is the systematic study of the past, focusing primarily on the Human history, human past. As an academic discipline, it analyses and interprets evidence to construct narratives about what happened and explain why it happened. Some t ...

of the

Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Peninsula (, , or , , ) or Arabia, is a peninsula in West Asia, situated north-east of Africa on the Arabian plate. At , comparable in size to India, the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world. Geographically, the ...

that includes the majority of the western region of

Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in West Asia. Located in the centre of the Middle East, it covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula and has a land area of about , making it the List of Asian countries ...

, covering the cities of

Mecca Mecca, officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, is the capital of Mecca Province in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia; it is the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow valley above ...

Medina Medina, officially al-Madinah al-Munawwarah (, ), also known as Taybah () and known in pre-Islamic times as Yathrib (), is the capital of Medina Province (Saudi Arabia), Medina Province in the Hejaz region of western Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ...

Jeddah Jeddah ( ), alternatively transliterated as Jedda, Jiddah or Jidda ( ; , ), is a List of governorates of Saudi Arabia, governorate and the largest city in Mecca Province, Saudi Arabia, and the country's second largest city after Riyadh, located ...

, Tabuk,

Yanbu Yanbu (), also known as Yambu or Yenbo, is a city in the Medina Province of western Saudi Arabia. It is approximately 300 kilometers northwest of Jeddah (at ). The population is 31,800 (2025 census). Many residents are foreign expatriates wo ...

Taif Taif (, ) is a city and governorate in Mecca Province in Saudi Arabia. Located at an elevation of in the slopes of the Hijaz Mountains, which themselves are part of the Sarat Mountains, the city has a population of 563,282 people in 2022, mak ...

and Al-Bahah. It is thus known as the "Western Province",Mackey, p. 101. "The Western Province, or the Hejaz .. and it is bordered in the west by the

Red Sea The Red Sea is a sea inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. Its connection to the ocean is in the south, through the Bab-el-Mandeb Strait and the Gulf of Aden. To its north lie the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and th ...

, in the north by

Jordan Jordan, officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, is a country in the Southern Levant region of West Asia. Jordan is bordered by Syria to the north, Iraq to the east, Saudi Arabia to the south, and Israel and the occupied Palestinian ter ...

, in the east by the

Najd Najd is a Historical region, historical region of the Arabian Peninsula that includes most of the central region of Saudi Arabia. It is roughly bounded by the Hejaz region to the west, the Nafud desert in Al-Jawf Province, al-Jawf to the north, ...

, and in the south by

Yemen Yemen, officially the Republic of Yemen, is a country in West Asia. Located in South Arabia, southern Arabia, it borders Saudi Arabia to Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, the north, Oman to Oman–Yemen border, the northeast, the south-eastern part ...

. Its largest city is Jeddah, which is the second-largest city in Saudi Arabia, with Mecca and Medina, respectively, being the third- and fourth-largest cities in the country. As the location of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, respectively the first and second

holiest sites in Islam The holiest sites in Islam are located in the Middle East. While the significance of most places typically varies depending on the Islamic schools and branches, Islamic sect, there is a consensus across all mainstream branches of the religion tha ...

, the Hejaz is significant in the Arabo-Islamic historical and political landscape. This region is the most populated in Saudi Arabia, and Arabic is the predominant language, as in the rest of Saudi Arabia, with

Hejazi Arabic Hejazi Arabic or Hijazi Arabic (HA) (, Hejazi Arabic: , ), also known as West Arabian Arabic, is a Varieties of Arabic, variety of Arabic spoken in the Hejaz region in Saudi Arabia. Strictly speaking, there are two main groups of dialects spoken i ...

being the most widely spoken dialect here. Some Hejazis are of ethnically diverse origins, although the vast majority are of

Arab Arabs (, , ; , , ) are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in West Asia and North Africa. A significant Arab diaspora is present in various parts of the world. Arabs have been in the Fertile Crescent for thousands of years ...

origin. According to

Islamic tradition The term Islamic tradition may refer to: * Islamic Traditionalist theology, Islamic scholarly movement, originating in the late 8th century CE *''Ahl al-Hadith'', "The adherents of the tradition" * Traditional Islamic schools and branches * Islami ...

, this region is the birthplace of the

Islamic prophet Prophets in Islam () are individuals in Islam who are believed to spread God's message on Earth and serve as models of ideal human behaviour. Some prophets are categorized as messengers (; sing. , ), those who transmit divine revelation, mos ...

Muhammad Muhammad (8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious and political leader and the founder of Islam. Muhammad in Islam, According to Islam, he was a prophet who was divinely inspired to preach and confirm the tawhid, monotheistic teachings of A ...

, who was born in Mecca, which was founded by his ancestors

Abraham Abraham (originally Abram) is the common Hebrews, Hebrew Patriarchs (Bible), patriarch of the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In Judaism, he is the founding father who began the Covenant (biblical), covenanta ...

Ishmael In the Bible, biblical Book of Genesis, Ishmael (; ; ; ) is the first son of Abraham. His mother was Hagar, the handmaiden of Abraham's wife Sarah. He died at the age of 137. Traditionally, he is seen as the ancestor of the Arabs. Within Isla ...

, and

Hagar According to the Book of Genesis, Hagar is an Egyptian slave, a handmaiden of Sarah (then known as ''Sarai''), whom Sarah gave to her own husband Abram (later renamed Abraham) as a wife to bear him a child. Abraham's firstborn son, through Haga ...

. The area became part of his empire through the

early Muslim conquests The early Muslim conquests or early Islamic conquests (), also known as the Arab conquests, were initiated in the 7th century by Muhammad, the founder of Islam. He established the first Islamic state in Medina, Arabian Peninsula, Arabia that ...

, and it formed part of successive caliphates, first the

Rashidun Caliphate The Rashidun Caliphate () is a title given for the reigns of first caliphs (lit. "successors") — Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali collectively — believed to Political aspects of Islam, represent the perfect Islam and governance who led the ...

, followed by the

Umayyad Caliphate The Umayyad Caliphate or Umayyad Empire (, ; ) was the second caliphate established after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty. Uthman ibn Affan, the third of the Rashidun caliphs, was also a member o ...

, and finally the

Abbasid Caliphate The Abbasid Caliphate or Abbasid Empire (; ) was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 CE), from whom the dynasty takes ...

. The

Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...

held partial control over the area; after its dissolution, an independent

Kingdom of Hejaz The Hashemite Kingdom of Hejaz (, ''Al-Mamlakah al-Ḥijāziyyah Al-Hāshimiyyah'') was a state in the Hejaz region of Western Asia that included the western portion of the Arabian Peninsula that was ruled by the Hashemite dynasty. It was self ...

existed briefly in 1925 before being conquered by the neighbouring

Sultanate of Nejd The Sultanate of Nejd (, ') was the third iteration of the Third Saudi State, from 1921 to 1926. It was a monarchy led by the House of Saud, and a legal predecessor of modern-day Saudi Arabia. This version of the Third Saudi State was created ...

, creating the

Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd The Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd (, '), initially the Kingdom of Hejaz and Sultanate of Nejd (Arabic: , '), was a dual monarchy ruled by Abdulaziz (Ibn Saud) following the Saudi conquest of Hejaz by the Sultanate of Nejd in 1925. It was the four ...

. In September 1932, the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd joined the Saudi dominions of

Al-Hasa Al-Ahsa or Al-Hasa may refer to: * Al-Ahsa Eyalet, or Lahsa Eyalet, a subdivision of the Ottoman Empire, now part of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Qatar * Al-Ahsa Oasis, an oasis and historical region in eastern Saudi Arabia. ** Al-Ahsa Governorate, a ...

and

Qatif Qatif Governorate ( ''Al-Qaṭīf'') is a list of governorates of Saudi Arabia, governorate and urban area located in Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia. It extends from Ras Tanura and Jubail in the north to Damma ...

, creating the unified Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Etymology

The name of the region is derived from a verb ''ḥajaza'' (), from the Arabic root ''ḥ-j-z'' (), meaning "to separate", and it is so called as it separates the land of the

in the east from the land of Tihāmah in the west.

History

Prehistoric and ancient times

One or possibly two

megalith A megalith is a large stone that has been used to construct a prehistoric structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. More than 35,000 megalithic structures have been identified across Europe, ranging geographically f ...

dolmen A dolmen, () or portal tomb, is a type of single-chamber Megalith#Tombs, megalithic tomb, usually consisting of two or more upright megaliths supporting a large flat horizontal capstone or "table". Most date from the Late Neolithic period (4000 ...

have been found in Hejaz. The Hejaz includes both the '' Mahd adh-Dhahab'' ("Cradle of the Gold") () and a water source, now dried out, that used to flow north east to the Persian Gulf via the Wādi Al-Rummah and Wādi Al-Bātin system. Archaeological research led by of

Boston University Boston University (BU) is a Private university, private research university in Boston, Massachusetts, United States. BU was founded in 1839 by a group of Boston Methodism, Methodists with its original campus in Newbury (town), Vermont, Newbur ...

and the University of Qassim indicates that the river system was active in 2500–3000 BCE. According to

Al-Masudi al-Masʿūdī (full name , ), –956, was a historian, geographer and traveler. He is sometimes referred to as the "Herodotus of the Arabs". A polymath and prolific author of over twenty works on theology, history (Islamic and universal), geo ...

the northern part of Hejaz was a dependency of ancient Israel, and according to

Butrus al-Bustani Butrus al-Bustani (, ; 1819–1883) was a Lebanese writer and scholar. He was a major figure in the Nahda, the Arab renaissance which began in Ottoman Egypt and had spread to all Arab-populated regions of the Ottoman Empire by the end of the ...

the Jews in Hejaz established a sovereign state. The German orientalist Ferdinand Wüstenfeld believed that the Jews established a state in northern Hejaz.

Era of Abraham and Ishmael

According to Arab and Islamic sources, the civilization of Mecca started after Ibrāhīm (Abraham) brought his son Ismāʿīl (Ishmael) and wife Hājar (Hagar) here, for the latter two to stay. The

Adnanites The Adnanites () were a tribal confederation of the Ishmaelite Arabs who originate from the Hejaz. They trace their lineage back to Ishmael, son of the Islamic prophet and patriarch Abraham and his wife Hagar, through Adnan. The Islamic prophe ...

were a tribal confederation of the Ishmaelite Arabs, who trace their lineage back to

son of the

and

patriarch The highest-ranking bishops in Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, the Roman Catholic Church (above major archbishop and primate), the Hussite Church, Church of the East, and some Independent Catholic Churches are termed patriarchs (and ...

and his wife

through

Adnan Adnan () is traditionally regarded as the patriarch of the Adnanite Arabs, a major Arab lineage that historically inhabited Northern, Western, Eastern, and Central Arabia. The Adnanites are distinct from the Qahtanite Arabs of Southern Arabia ...

, who originate from the Hejaz. Some people from the Yemeni tribe of Jurhum settled with them, and Isma'il reportedly married two women, one after divorcing another, at least one of them from this tribe, and helped his father to construct or re-construct the ''

Ka'bah The Kaaba (), also spelled Kaba, Kabah or Kabah, sometimes referred to as al-Kaba al-Musharrafa (), is a stone building at the center of Islam's most important mosque and Holiest sites in Islam, holiest site, the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Sa ...

'', which would have social, religious, political and historical implications for the site and region. For example, in Arab or Islamic belief, the tribe of

Quraysh The Quraysh () are an Tribes of Arabia, Arab tribe who controlled Mecca before the rise of Islam. Their members were divided into ten main clans, most notably including the Banu Hashim, into which Islam's founding prophet Muhammad was born. By ...

would descend from Isma'il ibn Ibrahim, be based in the vicinity of the Ka'bah, and include Muhammad ibn

Abdullah ibn Abdul-Muttalib Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib (; ; ) was the father of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.Ibn Hisham note 97.Muhammad ibn Saad, ''Tabaqat'' vol. 8. Translated by Bewley, A. (1995). ''The Women of Madina''. London: Ta-Ha Publishers. He was the son of A ...

ibn

Hashim ibn Abd Manaf Hāshim ibn ʿAbd Manāf (; ), born ʿAmr al-ʿUlā (), was the great-grandfather of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the progenitor of the ruling Banu Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe in Mecca. At some point in his life before his father's deat ...

. From the Period of '' Jāhiliyyah'' ('Ignorance') to the days of Muhammad, the often-warring Arab tribes would cease their hostilities during the time of

Pilgrimage A pilgrimage is a travel, journey to a holy place, which can lead to a personal transformation, after which the pilgrim returns to their daily life. A pilgrim (from the Latin ''peregrinus'') is a traveler (literally one who has come from afar) w ...

, and go on pilgrimage to Mecca, as inspired by Ibrahim. It was during such an occasion that Muhammad met some Madanis who would allow him to

migrate Migration, migratory, or migrate may refer to: Human migration * Human migration, physical movement by humans from one region to another ** International migration, when peoples cross state boundaries and stay in the host state for some minimum le ...

to Medina, to escape persecution by his opponents in Mecca. File:Saudi arabia makkah - panoramio (10).jpg,

Muslim Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...

pilgrims surrounding the ''

Maqam Maqam, makam, maqaam or maqām (plural maqāmāt) may refer to: Musical structures * Arabic maqam, melodic modes in traditional Arabic music ** Iraqi maqam, a genre of Arabic maqam music found in Iraq * Persian maqam, a notion in Persian clas ...

'' (Station) of Ibrahim (

) near the Kaaba in 2008 File:Hajr Ismail, Makkah.jpg, The '' Hateem'' where Isma'il (

) and Hajar (

) dwelt

Era of Shuaib

The

Midian Midian (; ; , ''Madiam''; Taymanitic: 𐪃𐪕𐪚𐪌 ''MDYN''; ''Mīḏyān'') is a geographical region in West Asia, located in northwestern Saudi Arabia. mentioned in the Tanakh and Quran. William G. Dever states that biblical Midian was ...

ites of the

Bible The Bible is a collection of religious texts that are central to Christianity and Judaism, and esteemed in other Abrahamic religions such as Islam. The Bible is an anthology (a compilation of texts of a variety of forms) originally writt ...

lived in Hejaz. Shuaib, who is revered as a prophet by both Muslims and

Druze The Druze ( ; , ' or ', , '), who Endonym and exonym, call themselves al-Muwaḥḥidūn (), are an Arabs, Arab Eastern esotericism, esoteric Religious denomination, religious group from West Asia who adhere to the Druze faith, an Abrahamic ...

, was from this community, who are also known as the ''Aṣḥāb al-Aykah'' ("Companions of the Wood"). The historical area of Midian roughly corresponds to what is now

region In geography, regions, otherwise referred to as areas, zones, lands or territories, are portions of the Earth's surface that are broadly divided by physical characteristics (physical geography), human impact characteristics (human geography), and ...

of Tabuk. Also, the northern part of the Hejaz was part of the

Roman province The Roman provinces (, pl. ) were the administrative regions of Ancient Rome outside Roman Italy that were controlled by the Romans under the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire. Each province was ruled by a Roman appointed as Roman g ...

Arabia Petraea Arabia Petraea or Petrea, also known as Rome's Arabian Province or simply Arabia, was a frontier Roman province, province of the Roman Empire beginning in the 2nd century. It consisted of the former Nabataean Kingdom in the southern Levant, th ...

Era of Saleh

Saudi Arabia's and Hejaz's first

World Heritage Site World Heritage Sites are landmarks and areas with legal protection under an treaty, international treaty administered by UNESCO for having cultural, historical, or scientific significance. The sites are judged to contain "cultural and natural ...

that was recognized by the

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO ) is a List of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) with the aim of promoting world peace and International secur ...

is that of Al-Hijr. The name ''Al-Ḥijr'' ("The Land of Stones" or "The Rocky Place") occurs in the

Qur'an The Quran, also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation directly from God ('' Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which consist of individual verses ('). Besides ...

, and the site is known for having structures carved into rocks, similar to

Petra Petra (; "Rock"), originally known to its inhabitants as Raqmu (Nabataean Aramaic, Nabataean: or , *''Raqēmō''), is an ancient city and archaeological site in southern Jordan. Famous for its rock-cut architecture and water conduit systems, P ...

. Construction of the structures is credited to the people of

Thamud The Thamud () were an ancient tribe or tribal confederation in pre-Islamic Arabia that occupied the northwestern Arabian Peninsula. They are attested in contemporaneous Mesopotamian and Classical inscriptions, as well as Arabic ones from the e ...

. The location is also called ''Madāʾin Ṣāliḥ'' ("Cities of Saleh"), as it is speculated to be the city in which the Islamic prophet Saleh was sent to the people of Thamud. After the disappearance of Thamud from Mada'in Saleh, it came under the influence of other people, such as the

Nabataeans The Nabataeans or Nabateans (; Nabataean Aramaic: , , vocalized as ) were an ancient Arabs, Arab people who inhabited northern Arabian Peninsula, Arabia and the southern Levant. Their settlements—most prominently the assumed capital city o ...

, whose capital was Petra. Later, it would lie in a route used by Muslim Pilgrims going to Mecca.

Era of Muhammad

As the land of Mecca and Medina, the Hejaz was where Muhammad was born, and where he founded a Monotheistic ''Ummah'' of followers, bore

patience or forbearance, is the ability to endure difficult or undesired long-term circumstances. Patience involves perseverance or tolerance in the face of delay, provocation, or stress without responding negatively, such as reacting with disrespect ...

with his foes or struggled against them, migrated from one place to another, preached or implemented his beliefs, lived and died. Given that he had both followers and enemies here, a number of battles or expeditions were carried out in this area, like those of ''

Al-Aḥzāb Al-Ahzab (, ; the confederates, George Sale translation or "the clans", "the coalition", or "the combined forces") is the 33rd chapter (''sūrah'') of the Quran (Q33) with 73 verses ('' āyāt''). The ''sūrah'' takes its name from the mentio ...

'' ("The Confederates"), Badr and Ḥunayn. They involved both Makkan companions, such as

Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib Ḥamza ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib ibn Hāshim ibn ʿAbd Manāf al-Qurashī (; )Muhammad ibn Saad. ''Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir'' vol. 3. Translated by Bewley, A. (2013). ''The Companions of Badr''. London: Ta-Ha Publishers. was a foster brother, ...

, Ubayda ibn al-Harith and

Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas ibn Wuhayb al-Zuhri () was an Arabs, Arab Muslims, Muslim commander. He was the founder of Kufa and served as its governor under Umar, Umar ibn al-Khattab. He played a leading role in the Muslim conquest of Persia and was a cl ...

, and Madani companions.Witness Pioneer "Pre-Badr Missions and Invasions"
/ref> The Hejaz fell under Muhammad's influence as he emerged victorious over his opponents, and was thus a part of his empire.Holt (1977), p. 57Lapidus (2002), pp. 31–32 File:Place of Birth of Hazrat Muhammad SAW near Masjid ul Harram Makkah Mukarma - panoramio.jpg,

Makkah Al Mukarramah Library The Makkah Al Mukarramah Library () is a library near the ''Masjid al-Haram'' in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. Since it is believed to stand on the spot where the Islamic prophet Muhammad was born, it is also known as ''Bayt al-Mawlid'' (). History ...

near the Sacred Mosque. Because it is believed to be built on the spot where

Amina bint Wahb Amina bint Wahb ibn Abd Manaf al-Zuhriyya (, ) was the mother of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. She belonged to the Banu Zuhra tribe. Early life and marriage Aminah was born to Wahb ibn Abd Manaf and Barrah bint 'Abd al-'Uzzā ibn 'Uthmān ib ...

gave birth to Muhammad, it is also known as ''

Bayt al-Mawlid The Makkah Al Mukarramah Library () is a library near the ''Masjid al-Haram'' in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. Since it is believed to stand on the spot where the Islamic prophet Muhammad was born, it is also known as ''Bayt al-Mawlid'' (). History ...

'' (House of the Birth). File:MasjidNabawi.jpg, Muhammad's Mosque in

, his place-of-residence after the ''

Hijrah The Hijrah, () also Hegira (from Medieval Latin), was the journey the prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad and his followers took from Mecca to Medina. The year in which the Hijrah took place is also identified as the e ...

'' (Migration) from Mecca. Muhammad is buried underneath the

Green Dome The Green Dome (, ) is a green-coloured dome built above the tombs of the Prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad and the early Rashidun Caliphate, Rashidun Caliphs Abu Bakr () and Umar, Omar (), which used to be the chamber ...

Subsequent history

Due to the presence of the two holy cities in the Hejaz, the region was ruled by numerous empires. The Hejaz was at the center of the

, in particular whilst its capital was Medina from 632 to 656

ACE An ace is a playing card, die or domino with a single pip. In the standard French deck, an ace has a single suit symbol (a heart, diamond, spade, or a club) located in the middle of the card, sometimes large and decorated, especially in the ...

. The region was then under the control of regional powers, such as

Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...

and the

, throughout much of its later history. After the Ottomans lost control of it, Hejaz became an independent state.

Brief independence

After the end of the Ottoman suzerainty and control in Arabia, in 1916, Hussein bin Ali became the leader of an independent State of Hejaz. In 1924, Ali bin Hussein succeeded as the King of Hejaz. Then

Ibn Saud Abdulaziz bin Abdul Rahman Al Saud (; 15 January 1875Ibn Saud's birth year has been a source of debate. It is generally accepted as 1876, although a few sources give it as 1880. According to British author Robert Lacey's book ''The Kingdom'', ...

succeeded Hussein as the King of Hejaz and Nejd. Ibn Saud ruled the two as separate units, known as the

from 1926 to 1932. Hejaz-English

In modern Saudi Arabia

On 23 September 1932, the two kingdoms of the Hejaz and Nejd were united as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. This day is commemorated as the Saudi National Day.

Culture

Religion

The cultural setting of Hejaz is greatly influenced by that of Islam, especially as it contains its 2 holiest cities, Mecca and Medina. Moreover, the Quran is considered the constitution of Saudi Arabia, and the

Sharia Sharia, Sharī'ah, Shari'a, or Shariah () is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition based on Islamic holy books, scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran, Qur'an and hadith. In Islamic terminology ''sharīʿah'' ...

is the main legal source. In Saudi Arabia, Islam is not just adhered politically by the government but also it has a great influence on the people's culture and everyday life. The society is in general deeply religious, conservative, traditional, and family-oriented. Many attitudes and traditions are centuries-old, derived from Arab civilization and Islamic heritage. File:Mina 2.JPG, The camp of Mina on the outskirts of Mecca, where Muslim pilgrims gather for the ''

Hajj Hajj (; ; also spelled Hadj, Haj or Haji) is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest city for Muslims. Hajj is a mandatory religious duty for capable Muslims that must be carried out at least once in their lifetim ...

'' (Greater Pilgrimage). '' Masjid Al-Khayf'' is visible to the right. File:Pilgrims must spend the time within a defined area on the plain of Arafat. - Flickr - Al Jazeera English.jpg, Muslim pilgrims gathering at the plain of

Mount Arafat Mount Arafat (, or ) is a granodiorite hill about southeast of Mecca, in the Makkah Province, province of the same name in Saudi Arabia. It is approximately in height, with its highest point sitting at an elevation of . The Prophet Muhammad, ...

Cuisine

Hejazi cuisine has mostly Arabian dishes like the rest of Saudi Arabia, Some dishes are native to the Hejaz, like Saleeg. Other Dishes were imported from other cultures through Saudis of different origins, like Mantu (), Yaghmush () and Ruz Bukhāri () from Central Asia, Burēk () and Šurēk and Kabab almīru () from Turkey and the Balkans, Mandi () and Mutabbag () from Yemen, Biryāni and Kābli () rice dishes from

South Asia South Asia is the southern Subregion#Asia, subregion of Asia that is defined in both geographical and Ethnicity, ethnic-Culture, cultural terms. South Asia, with a population of 2.04 billion, contains a quarter (25%) of the world's populatio ...

. Grilled meat dishes such as

shawarma Shawarma (; ) is a Middle Eastern dish that originated in the Levant during the Ottoman Empire, consisting of meat that is cut into thin slices, stacked in an inverted cone, and roasted on a slow-turning vertical spit. Traditionally made with l ...

and

kebab Kebab ( , ), kebap, kabob (alternative North American spelling), kebob, or kabab (Kashmiri spelling) is a variety of roasted meat dishes that originated in the Middle East. Kebabs consist of cut up ground meat, sometimes with vegetables an ...

are well-known in Hejaz. The Hejazi dishes are known for their spice.

Geography

The region is located along the Red Sea Rift. It is also known for its darker, more

volcanic A volcano is commonly defined as a vent or fissure in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. On Earth, volcanoes are most often fo ...

sand Sand is a granular material composed of finely divided mineral particles. Sand has various compositions but is usually defined by its grain size. Sand grains are smaller than gravel and coarser than silt. Sand can also refer to a textural ...

. Depending on the previous definition, the Hejaz includes some of the mountains of the Sarat range, which topographically separate the Najd from Tehamah. Bdellium plants are also abundant in the Hejaz. Saudi Arabia, and in particular the Hejaz, is home to more than 2000 dormant volcanoes. Lava fields in the Hejaz, known locally by their Arabic name of ''ḥarrāt'' (, singular: ''ḥarrah'' ()), form one of Earth's largest

alkali basalt Alkali basalt or alkali olivine basalt is a dark-colored, porphyritic volcanic rock usually found in oceanic and continental areas associated with volcanic activity, such as oceanic islands, continental rifts and volcanic fields. Alkali basalt i ...

regions, covering some , an area greater than the state of

Missouri Missouri (''see #Etymology and pronunciation, pronunciation'') is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. Ranking List of U.S. states and territories by area, 21st in land area, it border ...

. File:1قرية ذي عين.jpg, The village of Dhi 'Ain in

Al-Bahah Province Al-Baha Province, also known as Al-Baha Region ( ' ), also spelled as Al-Bahah, is a Provinces of Saudi Arabia, province in Saudi Arabia. It is the smallest province in the country by both area and population. History History of the Province Be ...

File:Taif Mountains (8355942584).jpg,

Mountains A mountain is an elevated portion of the Earth's crust, generally with steep sides that show significant exposed bedrock. Although definitions vary, a mountain may differ from a plateau in having a limited summit area, and is usually higher ...

near

At-Ta'if Taif (, ) is a city and governorate in Mecca Province in Saudi Arabia. Located at an elevation of in the slopes of the Hijaz Mountains, which themselves are part of the Sarat Mountains, the city has a population of 563,282 people in 2022, mak ...

, 2012 File:جبل أحد.jpg,

Mount Uhud Mount Uhud (, ) is a mountain north of Medina, in the Hejazi region of Saudi Arabia. It is high and long. It was the site of the second battle between the Prophets of Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad and the Shirk (Islam), polytheists of his T ...

in the area of

File:Harrat Khaybar Space.jpg, Harrat Khaybar, as seen from the

International Space Station The International Space Station (ISS) is a large space station that was Assembly of the International Space Station, assembled and is maintained in low Earth orbit by a collaboration of five space agencies and their contractors: NASA (United ...

Cities

Al Bahah Region: * Al-Bāḥah

: * ''Al-Madīnah Al-Munawwarah'' (

) * Badrبـتـصـرف عـن مـجـلـة الأمـانـة الـعـدد عـشـرون شـوال 1419 تـصـدر عـن أمـانـة الـمـديـنـة الـمـنـور�
إمـارة مـنـطـقـة الـمـديـنـة الـمـنـورة
* ''Yanbuʿ al-Baḥr'' (

)

Mecca Province Mecca Province (, ), officially Makkah Province, is one of the 13 provinces of Saudi Arabia. It is the third-largest province by area at and the most populous with a population of 8,557,766 as of 2017, of which 4,041,189 were foreign nationals ...

: * Aṭ-Ṭāʾif * ''Jiddah'' (

) * ''Makkah'' (

) * Rābigh

Tabuk Region Tabuk Province, also known as Tabuk Region ( '), is a province in Saudi Arabia, located along the northwestern coast of the country, facing Egypt across the Red Sea. It also borders Jordan to the north. History The history of Tabuk province ...

: * Tabūk * Umluj File:DL1W7080.jpg, The old city of Jeddah on the coast of the

Tihamah Tihamah or Tihama ( ') is the Red Sea coastal plain of the Arabian Peninsula from the Gulf of Aqaba to the Bab el Mandeb. Etymology Tihāmat is the Proto-Semitic language's term for 'sea'. Tiamat (or Tehom, in masculine form) was the ancient M ...

File:Albaha.JPG, Al-Bahah City, located above sea level

Tourism

As a component of

Saudi Vision 2030 Saudi Vision 2030 (, sometimes called Project 2030) is a government program launched by Saudi Arabia which aims to achieve the goal of increased diversification economically, socially, and culturally, in line with the vision of Saudi crown pri ...

, a tourist destination with an area of is under development, between the towns of Umluj () and Al-Wajh (), on the coast of the Red Sea. The project will involve "the development of 22 of the 90+ islands" that lie along the coast to create a "fully integrated luxury mixed-use destination", and will be "governed by laws on par with international standards".

Demographics

The Hejaz is the most populated region in Saudi Arabia, containing 35% of the population of Saudi Arabia. Most people of Hejaz are

Sunni Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam and the largest religious denomination in the world. It holds that Muhammad did not appoint any successor and that his closest companion Abu Bakr () rightfully succeeded him as the caliph of the Mu ...

s with a

Shia Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib () as both his political successor (caliph) and as the spiritual leader of the Muslim community (imam). However, his right is understood ...

minority in the cities of Medina, Mecca and Jeddah. Many consider themselves more cosmopolitan because Hejaz was for centuries a part of the great empires of Islam from the Umayyads to the

Ottomans Ottoman may refer to: * Osman I, historically known in English as "Ottoman I", founder of the Ottoman Empire * Osman II, historically known in English as "Ottoman II" * Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empir ...

. People of Hejaz, who feel particularly connected to the holy places of Mecca and Medina, have probably the most strongly articulated identity of any regional grouping in Saudi Arabia.

Culture

Notable people

* Salih of Thamud * Shuaib of Midian

Al-Abwa'

Musa al-Kazim Musa al-Kazim (; 745–799) was a descendant of the Prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad and the seventh Twelve Imams, imam in Twelver Shi'ism, Twelver Shia Islam. Musa is often known by the title al-Kazim (), apparently ...

ibn Jaʿfar al-Sadiq, descendant of Muhammad

Mecca

Pre–6th century CE

Qusai ibn Kilab Qusai ibn Kilab ibn Murrah (, ''Qusayy ibn Kilāb ibn Murrah''; ca. 400–480), also spelled Qusayy, Kusayy, Kusai, or Cossai, born Zayd (), was an Ishmaelite descendant of Abraham. Orphaned early on, he would rise to become chief of Mecca, an ...

ibn

Murrah ibn Ka'b Murrah ibn Ka'b () ibn Luay ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr ibn Malik was a man from Quraysh tribe, supposed to have lived in the 4th century. He was the sixth-in-line of Muhammad's grandfathers. He is the common ancestor of all four of Muhammad's grandpare ...

ibn

Lu'ayy ibn Ghalib Lu'ayy ibn Ghalib () was an ancestor of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He is the son of Ghalib ibn Fihr who lived in Yathrib. History The tradition states that Muhammad was the son of 'Abdullah, b. 'Abdu'I-Muttalib (whose name was Shayba), b ...

ibn

Fihr ibn Malik 'Fihr ibn Malik' (, ), is counted among the direct ancestors of the Islamic prophet Muhammad who is considered to be the last prophet. In the lineage of Muhammad from Adnan, he precedes Muhammad by eleven generations. Etymology Some writer ...

ibn An-Nadr ibn Kinanah ibn Khuzaymah ibn Mudrikah ibn Ilyas ibn Mudar ibn Nizar ibn Ma'add ibn Adnan the descendant of Isma'il ibn Ibrahim ibn Azar ibn Nahor ibn Serug ibn

Reu Reu or Ragau (; ), according to Genesis in the Hebrew Bible, was the son of Peleg and the father of Serug, thus being Abraham's great-great-grandfather and the ancestor of the Israelites and Ishmaelites. In scriptures According to the apo ...

ibn

Peleg Peleg (, in pausa , "division"; ) is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible as one of the two sons of Eber, an ancestor of the Ishmaelites and the Israelites, according to the Generations of Noah in and . In Scriptures Peleg's son was Reu, born w ...

ibn

Eber Eber (; ; ) is an ancestor of the Ishmaelites and the Israelites according to the Generations of Noah in the Book of Genesis () and the Books of Chronicles (). Lineage Eber (Hebrew: Ever) was a great-grandson of Noah's son Shem and the father ...

ibn Shelakh,

Book of Genesis The Book of Genesis (from Greek language, Greek ; ; ) is the first book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament. Its Hebrew name is the same as its incipit, first word, (In the beginning (phrase), 'In the beginning'). Genesis purpor ...

, Chapters 10, 11, 16, 17, 21 and 25

1 Chronicles The Book of Chronicles ( , "words of the days") is a book in the Hebrew Bible, found as two books (1–2 Chronicles) in the Christian Old Testament. Chronicles is the final book of the Hebrew Bible, concluding the third section of the Jewish Tan ...

, Chapter 1 Chief of the Tribe of

, and an ancestor of Muhammad * Qusai's son Abd-al-Dar the father of Uthman the father of Abdul-Uzza the father of Barrah the maternal grandmother of Muhammad *

Abd Manaf ibn Qusai Abd Manaf al-Mughirah ibn Qusai (, ''ʿAbd Manāf al-Mughīrah ibn Quṣayy'') was a Quraysh (tribe), Qurayshi and great-great-grandfather of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. His father was Qusai ibn Kilab, Quṣai ibn Kilāb. Abd Manaf's name, mea ...

, paternal ancestor of Muhammad * Abdul-Uzza, son of Qusai, and an ancestor of Barrah bint Abdul-Uzza * Hashim, son of Abd Manaf, paternal great-grandfather of Muhammad, and the progenitor of Banu Hashim in the tribe of Quraysh *

Abdul-Muttalib Shayba ibn Hāshim (; ), better known as ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib, () was the fourth chief of the Quraysh tribal confederation and grandfather of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Early life His father was Hashim ibn 'Abd Manaf,Muhammad ibn Sa ...

ibn Hashim, paternal grandfather of Muhammad * Hubbah bint Hulail ibn Hubshiyyah ibn Salul ibn Kaʿb ibn Amr al- Khuzaʿi, wife of Qusai, and an ancestor of Muhammad * Atikah bint Murrah ibn Hilal ibn Falij ibn Dhakwan, wife of Abd Manaf, and an ancestor of Muhammad

Since

ibn Abdullah ibn Abdul-Muttalib ibn Hashim *

Abu Bakr Abd Allah ibn Abi Quhafa (23 August 634), better known by his ''Kunya (Arabic), kunya'' Abu Bakr, was a senior Sahaba, companion, the closest friend, and father-in-law of Muhammad. He served as the first caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate, ruli ...

Abdullah ibn Uthman Abu Quhafah ibn Amir ibn Amr ibn Ka'b ibn Sa'd ibn Taym ibn Murrah ibn Ka'b, father-in-law of Muhammad, and

Caliph A caliphate ( ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with Khalifa, the title of caliph (; , ), a person considered a political–religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a leader of ...

Umar Umar ibn al-Khattab (; ), also spelled Omar, was the second Rashidun caliph, ruling from August 634 until his assassination in 644. He succeeded Abu Bakr () and is regarded as a senior companion and father-in-law of the Islamic prophet Mu ...

ibn

Al-Khattab ibn Nufayl Al-Khaṭṭāb ibn Nufayl () was an Arab tribal chief, chief from the Meccan branch of Quraysh. He lived during the sixth century and was a contemporary of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. His son Umar would later become Muslim, and would come to be ...

ibn Abdul-Uzza the descendant of

Adi Adi or ADI may refer to: Abbreviations * Acceptable daily intake, in health and medicine * Acting detective inspector, a type of police inspector * Africa Development Indicators, a compilation of data assembled by the World Bank * Alternating ...

ibn

Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy () was an ancestor of the Islamic prophet Muhammad in Arabic tradition. Ancestry Ka'b Lu'ayy was born in c. 305, in Mecca, Saudi Arabia to Lu'ayy ibn Ghalib and Ma'wiya bint Ka`b ibn al-Qayn ibn Jasr ibn Shay' Allah ibn Asad ...

, father-in-law of Muhammad, and Caliph * Ali ibn Abi Talib, cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, and Caliph * Hamzah, son of Abdul-Muttalib, and a paternal uncle of Muhammad, and other ''

Muhajirun The ''Muhajirun'' (, singular , ) were the converts to Islam and the Islamic prophet Muhammad's advisors and relatives, who emigrated from Mecca to Medina; the event is known in Islam as the '' Hijra''. The early Muslims from Medina are called the ...

'' or Makkan followers of Muhammad, including Ubaydah and Sa'd * Abu Talib, son of Abdul-Muttalib, chief of

Banu Hashim Banu Hashim () is an Arab clan within the Quraysh tribe to which the Islamic prophet Muhammad belonged, named after Muhammad's great-grandfather Hashim ibn Abd Manaf. Members of this clan, and especially their descendants, are also referred ...

, paternal uncle of Muhammad, and the father of Ali * Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim, Chief of Bani Hashim, and the paternal grandfather of Muhammad *

Khadija bint Khuwaylid Khadija bint Khuwaylid (November 619) was the first wife of Muhammad. Born into an aristocratic clan of the Quraysh, she was an affluent merchant in her own right and was known to have a noble personality within her tribe. In his early 20s, she e ...

ibn Asad ibn Abdul-Uzza ibn Qusai, and other Meccan

wives of Muhammad A total of eleven women are confirmed as having been married to Muhammad, the founder of Islam. As a sign of respect, Muslims refer to each of these wives with the title ''"Umm al-Mu'minin"'' (, ), which is derived from of the Quran. Muhammad' ...

Fatima Fatima bint Muhammad (; 605/15–632 CE), commonly known as Fatima al-Zahra' (), was the daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his wife Khadija. Fatima's husband was Ali, the fourth of the Rashidun caliphs and the first Shia imam. ...

h, other daughters of Muhammad, and other Muhajir women * Umm Ammar Sumayyah bint Khayyat, wife of Yasir ibn Amir ibn Malik al-Ansi, believed to be the first

martyr A martyr (, ''mártys'', 'witness' Word stem, stem , ''martyr-'') is someone who suffers persecution and death for advocating, renouncing, or refusing to renounce or advocate, a religious belief or other cause as demanded by an external party. In ...

from the followers of Muhammad *

Aminah Amina (or Aminah) is the loose transcription of two different Arabic female given names: * ʾĀmina (Arabic: آمنة, also anglicized as ''Aaminah'' or '' Amna'') meaning "safe one, protected" * ʾAmīna (Arabic: أمينة, also anglicized as ''A ...

bint

Wahb ibn Abd Manaf Wahb ibn 'Abd Manaf () ibn Zuhrah ibn Kilab ibn Murrah, was the chief of Banu Zuhrah, and the father of Aminah bint Wahb. He was the maternal grandfather of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Family Wahb's great-grandfather was Zuhrah ibn Kila ...

ibn Zuhrah ibn Kilab ibn Murrah, wife of Abdullah, and the mother of Muhammad

Medina

Pre–6th century CE

* Salmah, daughter of Amr, wife of Hashim, and a great-grandmother of Muhammad

Since

* Caliph Al-Hasan, and other sons of Ali and grandsons of Muhammad born in Medina * Caliph

ibn Abdul-Aziz ibn Marwan ibn

Al-Hakam ibn Abi al-'As Al-Hakam ibn Abi al-As ibn Umayya (; died 655/56), was the father of the founder of the Marwanid line of the Umayyad dynasty, Marwan I (), and a paternal uncle of Caliph Uthman (). He was known as a staunch opponent of the Islamic prophet Muhamma ...

ibn Umayyah ibn Abd Shams ibn Abd Manaf ibn Qusai, great-grandson of Umar ibn Al-Khattab * Al-

Hasan of Basra Abi Sa'id al-Hasan ibn Yasar al-Basri, often referred to as al-Hasan al-Basri, was an ancient Muslim preacher, ascetic, theologian, exegete, scholar, and judge. Born in Medina in 642,Mourad, Suleiman A., “al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī”, in: ''Encyc ...

Muhammad al-Baqir Muhammad ibn Ali al-Baqir (; ) was a descendant of the prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad and the fifth of the Twelve Imams, twelve Shia imams, succeeding his father, Ali al-Sajjad, and succeeded by his son, Ja'far al-Sad ...

ibn Ali Zaynul-Abidin, grandson of Hasan and Husayn the grandsons of Muhammad * Zayd ibn Ali Zaynul-Abidin ibn Husayn ibn Fatimah bint Muhammad, half-brother of Muhammad al-Baqir * Ansari women *

Ja'far al-Sadiq Ja'far al-Sadiq (; –765) was a Muslim hadith transmitter and the last agreed-upon Shia Imam between the Twelvers and Isma'ilis. Known by the title al-Sadiq ("The Truthful"), Ja'far was the eponymous founder of the Ja'fari school of Isla ...

ibn Muhammad al-Baqir * Malik the son of Anas ibn Malik ibn Abi Amir al-Asbahi (not Anas the companion of Muhammad) *

Ali al-Rida Ali al-Rida (, 1 January 766 – 6 June 818), also known as Abū al-Ḥasan al-Thānī, was a descendant of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and the eighth imam in Twelver Shia Islam, succeeding his father, Musa al-Kazim. He is also part of th ...

ibn Musa al-Kadhim ibn Ja'far al-Sadiq * Fatima bint Musa ibn Ja'far al-Maʿsumah of Qum, sister of Ali al-Ridha * Abu Ali

Muhammad al-Jawad Muhammad al-Jawad (, – ) was a descendant of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the ninth of the Twelve Imams, succeeding his father, Ali al-Rida (). He is known by the epithets al-Jawād () and al-Taqī (). Like most of his predecessors, M ...

ibn Ali al-Ridha

Ta'if

6th–7th centuries CE

Uthman Uthman ibn Affan (17 June 656) was the third caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate, ruling from 644 until his assassination in 656. Uthman, a second cousin, son-in-law, and notable companion of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad, played a major role ...

ibn Affan ibn

Abu al-'As ibn Umayyah Abū al-ʿĀṣ ibn Umayya () was a son of the eponymous progenitor of the Umayyad clan, Umayya ibn Abd Shams. His sons were the following: * Affan, father of Caliph Uthman. * Al-Hakam, the father of the Umayyad caliph Marwan I. *Al-Mughira, ma ...

ibn

Abd Shams ibn Abd Manaf ʿAbd Shams ibn ʿAbd Manāf () was a prominent member of the Quraysh tribe of Mecca in modern-day Saudi Arabia. The Banu Abd Shams sub-clan of the Quraish tribe and their descendants take its name from him. Lineage Abd Shams was the oldest son ...

, son-in-law of Muhammad, and Caliph *

Urwah ibn Mas'ud Urwa or Urwah is a feminine Muslim name of Arabic origin meaning "strong support." People * Urwa ibn al-Ward (555–607), pre-Islamic poet * Urwah ibn Mas'ud, semi-legendary chieftain of Taif * Urwah ibn Zubayr (died 713), tabi'i Muslim historia ...

, chief of

Banu Thaqif The Banu Thaqif () is an Arab tribe which inhabited, and still inhabits, the city of Ta'if and its environs, in modern Saudi Arabia, and played a prominent role in early Islamic history. During the pre-Islamic period, the Thaqif rivaled and co ...

* Nafi ibn al-Harith,

physician A physician, medical practitioner (British English), medical doctor, or simply doctor is a health professional who practices medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring health through the Medical education, study, Med ...

Since

Sharif Ali Sharif Ali (died ) or commonly known as Sultan Berkat (the Blessed Sultan), was the fourth sultan of Brunei from 1425 until 1432, the year of his alleged death. He ascended the Brunei throne in 1425, succeeding his father-in-law, Sultan Ahmad, ...

ibn Ajlan ibn Rumaithah ibn Muhammad, son-in-law and successor of

Sultan Ahmad of Brunei Ahmad (born Awang Pateh Berbai; died ), also known as Pateh Berbai, was the third sultan of Brunei from 1408 until his death in 1425. He was the eldest son of Dewa Amas Kayangan and the brother of Awang Alak Betatar (also known as Muhammad Sha ...

, father of

Sultan Sulaiman Sultan Sir Alaeddin Sulaiman Shah Ibni Almarhum Raja Muda Raja Haji Musa (Jawi script, Jawi: ; 11 September 1863 – 31 March 1938) was the fifth Sultan of Selangor reigning from 1898 to 1938. He was known as Raja Sulaiman before being crowne ...

, and a descendant of Muhammad

Explanatory notes

References

External links

* {{Authority control Historical regions Historical regions in Saudi Arabia Megalithic monuments in the Middle East Red Sea Geographical regions of the Arabian Peninsula

Etymology

History

Prehistoric and ancient times

Era of Abraham and Ishmael

Era of Shuaib

Era of Saleh

Era of Muhammad

Subsequent history

Brief independence

In modern Saudi Arabia

Culture

Religion

Cuisine

Geography

Cities

Tourism

Demographics

Culture

Notable people

Al-Abwa'

Mecca

Pre–6th century CE

Since

Medina

Pre–6th century CE

Since

Ta'if

6th–7th centuries CE

Since

See also

Explanatory notes

References

Further reading

External links