ālāpiṇī Vīṇā
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The ''ālāpiṇī vīṇā'' was a medieval stick-zither
veena The ''veena'', also spelled ''vina'' ( IAST: vīṇā), is any of various chordophone instruments from the Indian subcontinent. Ancient musical instruments evolved into many variations, such as lutes, zithers and arched harps.
in India, with a single string and a gourd resonator. Later forms added more strings. The instruments became prominent in Indian music after 500 C.E. as instruments of court music. Alongside the
eka-tantri vina The ''eka-tantrī vīṇā'' was a medieval tube zither, tube-zither veena in India, with a single string and one or more gourd resonators. The instrument became prominent in Indian music in about the 10th century C.E. as instruments of court mus ...
and
kinnari vina The ''kinnari vina'' (Sanskrit: किन्नरी वीणा) is a historical veena, a tube zither with gourds attached to act as resonators and frets. It was played in India into the late 19th century and was documented by two European arti ...
it replaced the harp-style veenas and lute-style veenas. The instruments were used in Southeast Asia, both mainland and island nations, and were recorded in sculpture and relief sculpture. Although the stick zithers and
tube zither The tube zither is a stringed musical instrument in which a tube functions both as an instrument's neck and its soundbox. As the neck, it holds strings taut and allows them to vibrate. As a soundbox, it acoustic resonance, modifies the sound and ...
s are very similar, it is possible that they have different origins. Early paintings of stick zithers in India date back at least to the 5th century C.E. The earliest currently known stick zither is in the Caves of Ajanta at the end of the 5th century. After a period of assuming that tube zithers spread from India to Southeast Asia, modern scholars have been trying to decide if the tube zithers might have originated in Southeast Asia and spread to India. Whatever the origins, Indian influence on musical culture in Southeast Asia is recorded in the archaeological remains of past civilizations. Similar instruments today include the Cambodian
kse diev The kse diev () or () is a Cambodian musical bow with a single copper or brass string and a gourd resonator. The resonator is held to the bow with a nylon cord and is open at the other end. The nylon cord holds on the resonator and acts as a loo ...
and Thai phin namtao.


Identifying the ''ālāpiṇī vīṇā''

Instruments in paintings and sculpture are not generally labeled, and researchers have had to apply the names ''ālāpiṇī vīṇā'' and ''eka-tantrī vīṇā'' (one-string vina) to different instruments. Iconography can't show whether the rods or bodies are hollow, and researchers have had to look for clues in literature. Instruments in surviving images that are labeled ''eka-tantrī vīṇā'' are generally tube zithers with wide tubes and a gourd attached to the top, the gourd held over the musician's shoulder and the other end past their hip, with a single string and no frets. Musician's are shown sliding the straightened fingers of their upper hand on the string, or holding a stick to slide on the string, and plucking with their lower hand. Instruments labeled ''ālāpiṇī vīṇā'' tend to be stick zithers, held shoulder to hip with a gourd resonator that is pressed into the musician's stomach, chest or shoulder, the musician's upper hand normally held over that gourd with fingers wide to choose notes, the lower hand plucking the string. The body of the instrument may have been made of a 2 inch thick rod of red sandal wood or khadira wood, or may have been a bamboo tube. The earliest of these instruments were obvious stick zithers, the stick too narrow to make an effective resonating tube. Later instruments were as thick, the musician's hand barely able to stretch around the tube. Often in sculpture, the stick has curves. The instruments are fretless, the earliest depictions showing a single string. The later instruments labeled ''
kinnari vina The ''kinnari vina'' (Sanskrit: किन्नरी वीणा) is a historical veena, a tube zither with gourds attached to act as resonators and frets. It was played in India into the late 19th century and was documented by two European arti ...
'' we're fretted and show traits of both instruments, with gourds that are pressed into the chest and also rise above the shoulder. In medieval artwork, a second lower gourd has been seen on both stick zithers and tube zithers. Artwork for the eka-tantri vina commonly shows a second carved resonator or gourd resonator near the instrument's lower end. That is more rare in the alapini vina style stick zithers. Patrick Kersale identified two at the
Bayon The Bayon (, ) ( ''BAI-on'') is a richly decorated Khmer temple related to Buddhism at Angkor in Cambodia. Built in the late 12th or early 13th century as the state temple of the King Jayavarman VII (), the Bayon stands at the centre of Jaya ...
temple in
Angkor Angkor ( , 'capital city'), also known as Yasodharapura (; ),Headly, Robert K.; Chhor, Kylin; Lim, Lam Kheng; Kheang, Lim Hak; Chun, Chen. 1977. ''Cambodian-English Dictionary''. Bureau of Special Research in Modern Languages. The Catholic Uni ...
, Cambodia, from the 13th century circus scene. Another can be seen in alcove 46 or 47 of the
Kailasanathar Temple Kailasanathar Temple is the name of several Temple, temples and ancient religious sites found in Southeastern India, all dedicated to the deity Shiva in its form of Kailasanathar or Kailashanatha (). The designation refers to the Mount Kailash, whic ...
,
Kanchipuram Kanchipuram (International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration, IAST: '; ), also known as Kanjeevaram, is a stand alone city corporation, satellite nodal city of Chennai in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu in the Tondaimandalam region, from ...
, Tamil Nadu, India.


Modern instruments

Musicologist Lars-Christian Koch pointed out that modern instruments exist in Orissa or Radhjasthan, which can help us understand how the instruments might have sounded. Similarly, ethnomusicologist Patrick Kersale has documented modern instruments, including in Cambodia the
kse diev The kse diev () or () is a Cambodian musical bow with a single copper or brass string and a gourd resonator. The resonator is held to the bow with a nylon cord and is open at the other end. The nylon cord holds on the resonator and acts as a loo ...
, in Laos the kani zither ( Oy people) and in Vietnam the brok zither (
Jarai people Jarai people or Dega (, , or ; , or , ) are an Austronesian people, Austronesian indigenous people and ethnic group native to Vietnam's Central Highlands (Vietnam), Central Highlands (Gia Lai Province, Gia Lai and Kon Tum Province, Kon Tum Provin ...
and Êdê people). With the kse diev, the gourd is pressed with different pressures into the player's, and the ring finger of the right hand plucks, while the left hand applies pressure on the string at the players chest. Koch warns about assuming too much when looking at modern instruments. He said there is no "direct transfer of playing technique, tone supply or repertoire" so that the instruments in medieval India may have been played differently and to different kinds of music compared to modern instruments.


The instruments in literature

Based on definitions from Indian literature, the unifying criterion is that both have a single string and a gourd resonator. The literature includes the
Nāṭyaśāstra The ''Nāṭya Shāstra'' (, ''Nāṭyaśāstra'') is a Sanskrit treatise on the performing arts. The text is attributed to sage Bharata, and its first complete compilation is dated to between 200 BCE and 200 CE, but estimates vary b ...
(written sometime between 2nd century B.C.E. - 3rd century C.E.) by
Bharata Muni Bharata (Devanagari: भरत) was a '' muni'' (sage) of ancient India. He is traditionally attributed authorship of the influential performing arts treatise '' Natya Shastra'', which covers ancient Indian dance, poetics, dramaturgy, and music ...
and the
Sangita Ratnakara The ''Sangita-Ratnakara'', संगीतरत्नाकर, (IAST: Saṃgītaratnākara), literally "Ocean of Music ", is one of the most important musicological texts from India. Composed by Sharngadeva, Śārṅgadeva (शार्ङ ...
(written 1210 - 1247 AD) by
Śārṅgadeva __NOTOC__ Śārṅgadeva (1175–1247), also spelled Sharngadeva or Sarnga Deva, was a 13th-century Indian musicologist who authored ''Sangita Ratnakara'' – a Sanskrit text on music and drama. It is considered to be the authoritative treatise ...
.


According to Śārṅgadeva

In the 13th century, the Sangita Ratnakara placed vinas into three categories: fretless (into which the ''eka-tanktri vina'' was placed),
harps The High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher (HARPS) is a high-precision Echelle grating, echelle planet-finding spectrograph installed in 2002 on the ESO 3.6 m Telescope, ESO's 3.6m telescope at La Silla Observatory in Chile. The First l ...
, and fretted vinas (which included the ''alapini vina'' and the ''kinnari vina''). Frets were possibly introduced as a reaction to the invention of the 12-string scale, ca. 700-800. In 1400, the frets on the ''kinnari vina'' were attributed to Matanga (800 A.D.) the author of Brhad-desi. For the ''alapini vina'' Śārṅgadeva described an instrument 36 inches long, the
red sandalwood ''Pterocarpus santalinus'', with the common names red sanders, red saunders, Yerra Chandanam, Chenchandanam, red sandalwood, Rakta Chandana, and rakto chandon, is a species of ''Pterocarpus'' endemic to the southern Eastern Ghats mountain range ...
or Khadirah wood or bamboo rod 2 inches in circumference. The cup (tumba) was made from coconut, and its string was reportedly made of silk, producing a delicate sound. Comparison, the ''eka-tantri vina'' which Śārṅgadeva described was instrument made of Khadirah wood, less than a yard long, with a dandam "a stetched palm" (about 5-8 inches) in circumference, and 1.5 inches narrower on the bottom where a yali might be carved.


Modern researchers

Researchers Piyal Bhattacharya and Shreetama Chowdhury described the ''eka-tantrī vīṇā'' as being a larger instrument, with a "bigger tube" and bigger gourd, compared to the ''ālāpiṇī vīṇā'', which they described as a stick zither. The researchers looked at where the instrument's gourd was placed while playing; they indicated instruments with the gourd over the shoulder were ''eka-tantrī vīṇās'' and those pressed against the chest were ''ālāpiṇī vīṇās''. The writers for the vīnā entry in the '' New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments'' called the ''ālāpiṇī vīṇā'' a stick zither, in which the stick might be a bamboo or wooden tube. They focused on how the vinas were played. The gourd on the ''ālāpiṇī vīṇā'' was cut to form a cup or bowl, the opening of which could be placed against the musician's body while playing, creating a "closed resonance chamber". On the ''eka-tantrī vīṇā'' and later ''Kinarri vina'' the gourd (bottom intact) used for the resonance chamber rested over the musician's shoulder. These latter two might have a second or third gourd added further down, creating the modern ''kinarri vina'' and ''
rudra veena The ''rudra veena'' () (also spelled ''rudraveena'' or ''rudra vīnā'') — also called the ''bīn'' in North India — is a large plucked string instrument used in Hindustani music, especially dhrupad. It is one of the major types of '' vee ...
''


Symbolism

Different symbolism appears on the instruments over time. In Hinduism, the instruments have been associated with the gods
Shiva Shiva (; , ), also known as Mahadeva (; , , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐh and Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the God in Hinduism, Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions w ...
,
Saraswati Saraswati (, ), also spelled as Sarasvati, is one of the principal Devi, goddesses in Hinduism, revered as the goddess of knowledge, education, learning, arts, speech, poetry, music, purification, language and culture. Together with the godde ...
, and
Nataraja Nataraja (/ n̪əʈəɾɑd͡ʒᵊ/ ,, ; , ''Naṭarājar'' Telugu: నటరాజు,''Naṭarāju''), also known as Adalvallan (), is a depiction of Shiva, one of the main deities in Hinduism, as the divine cosmic dancer. His dance is ca ...
. Shiva has been portrayed playing it romantically for
Paravati Parvati (, , IPA: / pɑɾʋət̪iː/), also known as Uma (, , IPA: /ʊmɑː/) and Gauri (, , IPA: / gə͡ʊɾiː/), is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism, revered as the goddess of power, energy, nourishment, harmony, love, beauty, d ...
, and as an ascetic, Natajara, in his form as the divine dancer. Saraswati is a goddess of flowing things, including water, wisdom and music. Much less frequently,
Krishna Krishna (; Sanskrit language, Sanskrit: कृष्ण, ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme God (Hinduism), Supreme God in his own right. He is the god of protection, c ...
has also been portrayed playing the vina and dancing; the instrument is not iconically associated with him, as his instrument is the flute. The instrument has been portrayed in Buddhist temple art in the hands of humans, as well as celestial ''
kinnara A kinnara (Sanskrit: Kiṃnara) is a creature from Hindu and Buddhist mythology. They are described as part human and part bird, and have a strong association with music and love. Believed to come from the Himalayas, they often watch ove ...
s'', half human, half bird figures. Some kinnari vinas in museums seem to have bird-related carvings and feathers on the ends. Some ''alapini vinas'' and ''eka-tantri vinas'' have very styled ends that resemble the heads of monsters, similar to the
Makara Makara () is a legendary sea-creature in Hindu mythology. In Hindu astrology, Makara is equivalent to the Zodiac sign Capricorn. Makara appears as the vahana (vehicle) of the river goddess Ganga, Narmada, and of the god of the ocean, Varun ...
water monster's or the Yali's. Both monsters had forms that included an elephant's trunk, a feature found on some kinnari vinas. File:Makara or yali on alapini vina, 12th century, Pala Empire artwork.jpg, Makara or yali on alapini vina, 12th century, Pala Empire artwork File:Makara or yali, from Saraswati playing alapini vina, from Hindu stone sculpture in National Museum, New Delhi.jpg, Makara or yali (or possibly a bird), from Saraswati playing alapini vina, from Hindu stone sculpture in National Museum, New Delhi


Playing

When playing the musician could press the cut off side of the gourd into their chest; in modern versions such as the Cambodian
Kse Diev The kse diev () or () is a Cambodian musical bow with a single copper or brass string and a gourd resonator. The resonator is held to the bow with a nylon cord and is open at the other end. The nylon cord holds on the resonator and acts as a loo ...
, the musician tightens and loosens the gourd to their chest to change tone. The player holds the instrument with their left hand; this limits his ability to move the hand to one stop on the string. While plucking with the right hand, the player uses their forefinger to lightly touch the string for more notes.


Stick zithers

The instruments were recorded in sculpture and relief sculpture in
Sambor Prei Kuk Sambor Prei Kuk (Isanapura) (, ) is an archaeological site in Cambodia located in Kampong Thom Province, north of Kampong Thom, the provincial capital, east of Angkor and north of Phnom Penh. The now ruined complex dates back to the Pre-An ...
in the 7th century C.E., Borobudur in the 9th century C.E., the
Pala Empire The Pāla Empire was the empire ruled by the Pala dynasty, ("protector" in Sanskrit) a medieval Indian dynasty which ruled the kingdom of Gauda Kingdom, Gauda. The empire was founded with the election of Gopala, Gopāla by the chiefs of Kingdo ...
in the 10th—12th centuries C.E.,
Bayon The Bayon (, ) ( ''BAI-on'') is a richly decorated Khmer temple related to Buddhism at Angkor in Cambodia. Built in the late 12th or early 13th century as the state temple of the King Jayavarman VII (), the Bayon stands at the centre of Jaya ...
in the 13th century, and
Angkor Wat Angkor Wat (; , "City/Capital of Wat, Temples") is a Buddhism and Hinduism, Hindu-Buddhist temple complex in Cambodia. Located on a site measuring within the ancient Khmer Empire, Khmer capital city of Angkor, it was originally constructed ...
in the 16th century. Instruments using the ''ālāpiṇī vīṇā's'' style of pressing to the players chest can be seen in to Southeast Asia. Examples can be seen in ruins from Malayan culture at
Borobudur Borobudur, also transcribed Barabudur (, ), is a 9th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple in Magelang Regency, near the city of Magelang and the town of Muntilan, in Central Java, Indonesia. Constructed of gray andesite-like stone, the temple consi ...
and Cambodian culture at
Angkor Wat Angkor Wat (; , "City/Capital of Wat, Temples") is a Buddhism and Hinduism, Hindu-Buddhist temple complex in Cambodia. Located on a site measuring within the ancient Khmer Empire, Khmer capital city of Angkor, it was originally constructed ...
. Modern instruments related to it or using a similar half-gourd resonance system include the Cambodian ''
kse diev The kse diev () or () is a Cambodian musical bow with a single copper or brass string and a gourd resonator. The resonator is held to the bow with a nylon cord and is open at the other end. The nylon cord holds on the resonator and acts as a loo ...
'', Thai '' phin namtao'' and Indian '' tuila'' (among tribes in
Jharkhand Jharkhand (; ) is a States and union territories of India, state in East India, eastern India. The state shares its border with the states of West Bengal to the east, Chhattisgarh to the west, Uttar Pradesh to the northwest, Bihar to the north ...
and
Odisha Odisha (), formerly Orissa (List of renamed places in India, the official name until 2011), is a States and union territories of India, state located in East India, Eastern India. It is the List of states and union territories of India by ar ...
). These instruments have different features; some like the kse muoy have an extra gourd or the phin namtoa multiple strings. This may be seen as "evidence" that the ''ālāpiṇī vīṇā'' developed into other instruments. At least one example of the chest-pressed Southeast Asian zithers has bee-n found in artwork with a second gourd, in
Bayon The Bayon (, ) ( ''BAI-on'') is a richly decorated Khmer temple related to Buddhism at Angkor in Cambodia. Built in the late 12th or early 13th century as the state temple of the King Jayavarman VII (), the Bayon stands at the centre of Jaya ...
. The instruments were played in the same style as the zithers with a single gourd. These instruments are thus linked to the ''ālāpiṇī vīṇā'' for the method of playing them, and to the ''eka-tantrī vīṇā'' for the additional gourd, a path that led to the rudra vina in India. File:Alapini vina, Ajanta Caves, Cave 17.jpg, India, 5th century C.E.
Ajanta Caves The Ajanta Caves are 30 rock-cut architecture, rock-cut Buddhist caves in India, Buddhist cave monuments dating from the second century Common Era, BCE to about 480 CE in Aurangabad district, Maharashtra, Aurangabad district of Maharashtra sta ...
, Cave 17. Musician plucking an alapini vina, a stick-zither style veena resting on his shoulder. File:Kinnaras playing alapini vina and chime cymbals, from Mammallapuram relief.jpg, Ca. 7th century C.E. Kinnaras playing alapini vina and chime cymbals, from Mammallapuram relief. File:Large-5d6e38b2567c4.jpg, Hindu. 650-700 C.E., Thailand, Ku Bua, (
Dvaravati Dvaravati () was a medieval Mon political principality from the 6th century to the 11th century, located in the region now known as central Thailand, and was speculated to be a succeeding state of Lang-chia or Lang-ya-hsiu (). It was describe ...
culture). Three musicians in right are playing (from center) a 5-stringed lute, cymbals, a
tube zither The tube zither is a stringed musical instrument in which a tube functions both as an instrument's neck and its soundbox. As the neck, it holds strings taut and allows them to vibrate. As a soundbox, it acoustic resonance, modifies the sound and ...
or bar zither with gourd resonator. File:Siva playing a stick-zither vina for Parvati in Ellora Caves, image in side passage of Kailash temple (cave 16) b.jpg, India, ca. 8th century C.E. Siva playing a stick-zither vina for
Parvati Parvati (, , IPA: /Sanskrit phonology, pɑɾʋət̪iː/), also known as Uma (, , IPA: Sanskrit phonology, /ʊmɑː/) and Gauri (, , IPA: /Sanskrit phonology, gə͡ʊɾiː/), is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism, revered as the Devi, ...
in
Ellora Caves The Ellora Caves are a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Aurangabad, India. It is one of the largest rock-cut cave complexes in the world, with artwork dating from the period 600–1000 AD, including Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain caves., Quote: "The ...
, image in side passage of Kailash temple (cave 16) File:Alapini vina Kanchi Kailasanathar.jpg, India, ca. 7th-8th century C.E. A kinnara (?) playing Alapini vina at Kanchi Kailasanathar. File:Alapini vina at Kailasanathar Temple.jpg, India, 7th-8th century C.E. Figure holding an Alapini vina at Kailasanathar Temple File:Stick zither with resonator in Borobudur.jpg, 9th century C.E. Stick zither with resonator in
Borobudur Borobudur, also transcribed Barabudur (, ), is a 9th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple in Magelang Regency, near the city of Magelang and the town of Muntilan, in Central Java, Indonesia. Constructed of gray andesite-like stone, the temple consi ...
. File:Kinnara playing vina.jpg, Indonesia (Java), ca. 900-925 C.E. Kinnara playing vina File:Kinnaras with cymbals and stick-zither vina from Borobudur, photo by Kassian Céphas - Relief of the hidden base of Borobudur - 1890-1891 veena.jpg, 9th century C.E.
Kinnara A kinnara (Sanskrit: Kiṃnara) is a creature from Hindu and Buddhist mythology. They are described as part human and part bird, and have a strong association with music and love. Believed to come from the Himalayas, they often watch ove ...
s with cymbals and stick-zither veena; they are standing on tifa-like drums or pots. Bas-relief at Borobudur near Magelang - 1890-1891. File:Le temple de Shiva Nataraja (Chidambaram, Inde) (14052235333).jpg,
Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram Thillai Nataraja Temple, also referred as the Chidambaram Nataraja Temple, is a Hindu temple dedicated to Nataraja, the form of Shiva as the lord of dance (cosmic dancer). This temple is located in Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, India. This temple h ...
, ca. 12th-13th century C.E. Shivakamasundari (one of the forms of
Parvati Parvati (, , IPA: /Sanskrit phonology, pɑɾʋət̪iː/), also known as Uma (, , IPA: Sanskrit phonology, /ʊmɑː/) and Gauri (, , IPA: /Sanskrit phonology, gə͡ʊɾiː/), is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism, revered as the Devi, ...
) playing an alapini vina, the resonator pressed into her shoulder File:Relief sculptures of Brahma (l) and Saraswati (r) from the Hoysala period at the ASI museum in Halebidu.JPG, India, ca. 12th century C.E. Hoysaleswara Temple. Saraswati playing a stick zither. The gourd at the top of the broken-off instrument is on her left breast. File:Sculptures at the Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura, Mysuru, Karnataka, India (2002)0820.jpg, India, Keshava temple, ca. 13th century C.E. Saraswati playing a stick zither. File:12th century Saraswati Devi Chennakesava temple at Somanathapura, Karnataka, India.jpg, India, Chennakesava temple, ca. 12th century. Saraswati with stick-zither vina File:Chennakesava Temple Sculpture detail (3925681370).jpg, Somanathapur, India. Chennakesava Temple, ca. 12th-13th century. Krishna dancing with a stick-zither vina. File:Alapini vina, from India nord-orientale, vishnu vasudeva, 12th century.jpg, Saraswati with an alapini vina or possibly
eka-tantri vina The ''eka-tantrī vīṇā'' was a medieval tube zither, tube-zither veena in India, with a single string and one or more gourd resonators. The instrument became prominent in Indian music in about the 10th century C.E. as instruments of court mus ...
. The instrument has no apparent resonator except the thick tube of the body. Alapini vinas tended to have narrower tubes. File:Kse diev at Angkor Wat, North Section, 16th Century.jpg,
Angkor Wat Angkor Wat (; , "City/Capital of Wat, Temples") is a Buddhism and Hinduism, Hindu-Buddhist temple complex in Cambodia. Located on a site measuring within the ancient Khmer Empire, Khmer capital city of Angkor, it was originally constructed ...
, 16th century AD, showing a musician playing a kse diev. File:Yoeun Mek tries kse diev 2001.jpg, Modern kse diev


References

{{reflist Indian musical instruments Gourd musical instruments Monochords Tube zithers Stick zithers