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Second Constitutional Era
The Second Constitutional Era (; ) was the period of restored parliamentary rule in the Ottoman Empire between the 1908 Young Turk Revolution and the 1920 retraction of the constitution, after the dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies, during the empire's twilight years. Alternative end dates for era include 1912 or 1913. The rule of Sultan Abdulhamid II had been opposed by the Young Turks, an underground movement of reformists which called for the restoration of constitutional monarchy. In 1908, a faction within the Young Turks called the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) forced Abdulhamid II to restore the liberal constitution of 1876 and the General Assembly in the Young Turk Revolution. Abdulhamid II had previously suspended the parliament and constitution in 1878, two years after they had been introduced. Whereas the short First Constitutional Era lacked political parties, the second era initially featured unprecedented political pluralism within the empire and openly ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Central Europe, between the early 16th and early 18th centuries. The empire emerged from a Anatolian beyliks, ''beylik'', or principality, founded in northwestern Anatolia in by the Turkoman (ethnonym), Turkoman tribal leader Osman I. His successors Ottoman wars in Europe, conquered much of Anatolia and expanded into the Balkans by the mid-14th century, transforming their petty kingdom into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the Fall of Constantinople, conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II. With its capital at History of Istanbul#Ottoman Empire, Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) and control over a significant portion of the Mediterranean Basin, the Ottoman Empire was at the centre of interacti ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
1912 Ottoman General Election
Early general elections were held in the Ottoman Empire in April 1912. The ruling Committee of Union and Progress won 269 of the 275 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, whilst the opposition Freedom and Accord Party only won six seats, a victory widely deemed fraudulent and won through intimidation. The election became known as the "Election of Clubs" (Sopalı Seçimler) to history, when Rıza Tevfik (Bölükbaşı), who was running for office as an Accordist in Edirne, revealed how he was taken and beaten by Unionist thugs while campaigning in Komotini. Background The elections were announced in January 1912, making them the first early election in Turkish history. They were called after the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) lost a by-election to the new Freedom and Accord Party in Istanbul the month before, their candidate losing by a just 1 vote.Hasan Kayalı (1997Arabs and Young TurksUniversity of California Press The Freedom and Accord Party was a successor to the Lib ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Seyfo
The Sayfo (, ), also known as the Seyfo or the Assyrian genocide, was the mass murder and deportation of Assyrian people, Assyrian/Syriac Christians in southeastern Anatolia and Persia's Azerbaijan (Iran), Azerbaijan province by Ottoman Army (1861–1922), Ottoman forces and some Kurdish tribes during World War I. The Assyrians were divided into mutually antagonistic churches, including the Syriac Orthodox Church, the Assyrian Church of the East, and the Chaldean Catholic Church. Before World War I, they largely lived in mountainous and remote areas of the Ottoman Empire and Persia, some of which were effectively Stateless society, stateless. The Ottoman Empire's nineteenth-century centralization efforts led to increased violence and danger for the Assyrians. Mass killing of Assyrian civilians began during the Persian campaign (World War I), Ottoman occupation of Azerbaijan from January to May 1915, during which massacres were committed by Ottoman forces and pro-Ottoman Kur ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Armenian Genocide
The Armenian genocide was the systematic destruction of the Armenians, Armenian people and identity in the Ottoman Empire during World War I. Spearheaded by the ruling Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), it was implemented primarily through the mass murder of around one million Armenians during death marches to the Syrian Desert and the Forced conversion, forced Islamization of others, primarily women and children. Before World War I, Armenians occupied a somewhat protected, but subordinate, place in Ottoman society. Large-scale massacres of Armenians had occurred Hamidian massacres, in the 1890s and Adana massacre, 1909. The Ottoman Empire suffered a series of military defeats and territorial losses—especially during the 1912–1913 Balkan Wars—leading to fear among CUP leaders that the Armenians would seek independence. During their invasion of Caucasus campaign, Russian and Persian campaign (World War I), Persian territory in 1914, Special Organization (Ottoman ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Ottoman Entry Into World War I
The Ottoman Empire's entry into World War I began on 29 October 1914 when two recently purchased ships of its navy, which were still crewed by German Empire, German sailors and commanded by their German admiral, carried out the Black Sea Raid, a surprise attack against Russian Empire, Russian ports. Russia replied by #declaration, declaring war on 1 November 1914. Russia's allies, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Britain and French Third Republic, France, declared war on the Ottoman Empire on 5 November 1914. The reasons for the Ottoman action were not immediately clear. The Ottoman government had declared neutrality in the war and negotiations with both sides were underway. The decision would ultimately lead to the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Ottoman citizens, the Armenian genocide, the Defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922), dissolution of the empire, and the Abolition of the Caliphate, abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate. Background In ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Balkan Wars
The Balkan Wars were two conflicts that took place in the Balkans, Balkan states in 1912 and 1913. In the First Balkan War, the four Balkan states of Kingdom of Greece (Glücksburg), Greece, Kingdom of Serbia, Serbia, Kingdom of Montenegro, Montenegro and Kingdom of Bulgaria, Bulgaria declared war upon the Ottoman Empire and defeated it, in the process stripping the Ottomans of their European provinces, leaving only East Thrace, Eastern Thrace under Ottoman control. In the Second Balkan War, Bulgaria fought against the other four combatants of the first war. It also faced an attack from Kingdom of Romania, Romania from the north. The Ottoman Empire lost the bulk of its territory in Europe. Although not involved as a combatant, Austria-Hungary became relatively weaker as a much enlarged Serbia pushed for union of the South Slavs, Slavic peoples. The war set the stage for the July Crisis, July crisis of 1914 and as a prelude to the First World War. By the early 20th century, Bul ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Italian Invasion Of Libya
The Italian invasion of Libya occurred in 1911, when Italian troops invaded the Turkish province of Libya (then part of the Ottoman Empire) and started the Italo-Turkish War. As result, Italian Tripolitania and Italian Cyrenaica were established, later unified in the colony of Italian Libya. Background The claims of Italy over Libya dated back to verbal discussions after the Congress of Berlin (1878), in which France and Great Britain had agreed for the occupation of Tunisia and Cyprus respectively, both part of the then-ailing Ottoman Empire. When Italian diplomats hinted about a possible opposition of their government, the French replied that Tripoli would have been a counterpart for Italy. In 1902, Italy and France had signed a secret treaty which accorded freedom of intervention in Tripolitania and Morocco. However, the Italian government did little to put in practice the opportunity, and knowledge of the Libyan territory and resources remained scarce in the following year ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Macedonian Struggle
The Macedonian Struggle was a series of social, political, cultural and military conflicts that were mainly fought between Greek and Bulgarian subjects who lived in Ottoman Macedonia between 1893 and 1912. From 1904 to 1908 the conflict was part of a wider guerrilla war in which revolutionary organizations of Greeks, Bulgarians and Serbs all fought over Macedonia and its Christian population. Particularly over the national affiliation of the Slavic population which was forced to declare themselves for either of the sides. Gradually the Greek and Bulgarian bands gained the upper hand. Though the conflict largely ceased by the Young Turk Revolution, it continued as a low intensity insurgency until the Balkan Wars. Background Initially the conflict was waged through educational and religious means, with a fierce rivalry developing between supporters of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople (Greek-speaking or Slavic/Romance-speaking people who generally identified as Gree ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Bosnian Crisis
The Bosnian Crisis, also known as the Annexation Crisis (, ; sh-Latn-Cyrl, Aneksiona kriza, Анексиона криза) or the First Balkan Crisis, erupted on 5 October 1908 when Austria-Hungary announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, territories formerly within the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire but Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina, under Austro-Hungarian administration since 1878. This unilateral actiontimed to coincide with Bulgarian Declaration of Independence, Bulgaria's declaration of independence from the Ottoman Empire on 5 Octobersparked protestations from all the Great Powers and Austria-Hungary's Balkan neighbors, Kingdom of Serbia, Serbia and Principality of Montenegro, Montenegro. In April 1909, the Treaty of Berlin (1878), Treaty of Berlin was amended to reflect the ''fait accompli'' and bring the crisis to an end. Although the crisis ended with what appeared to be a total Austro-Hungarian diplomatic victory, it permanently damaged ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Bulgarian Declaration Of Independence
The ''de jure'' independence of Bulgaria () from the Ottoman Empire was proclaimed on in the old capital of Tarnovo by Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria, who afterwards took the title "Tsar". Background Bulgaria had been a widely autonomous principality since 13 July 1878 Congress of Berlin and the end of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78). Although it was still technically under the suzerainty of the Sublime Porte, this was a legal fiction that Bulgaria only acknowledged in a formal way. It acted largely as a '' de facto'' independent state with its own constitution, flag, anthem and currency, and conducted a separate foreign policy. On , it had unified with the Bulgarian-majority Ottoman autonomous province of Eastern Rumelia. After the liberation, Bulgaria's main external goal was the unification of all Bulgarian-inhabited areas under foreign rule into a single Bulgarian state: the main targets of Bulgarian irredentism were Macedonia and southern Thrace, which continu ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Djemal Pasha
Ahmed Djemal (; ; 6 May 1872 – 21 July 1922), also known as Djemal Pasha or Cemâl Pasha, was an Ottoman military leader and one of the Three Pashas that ruled the Ottoman Empire during World War I. As an officer of the II Corps, he was stationed in Salonica where he developed political sympathies for the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) reformers. He was initially praised by Christian missionaries and provided support to the Armenian victims of the Adana massacres. In the course of his army career Cemal developed a rivalry with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, served in Salonica on the frontlines of the Balkan Wars and was given the martial law command of Constantinople after the Raid on the Sublime Porte. Cemal's authoritarian three year rule in Syria alienated the local population who opposed Turkish nationalism. His role in the Armenian genocide has been controversial as his policies were not as deadly as other CUP leaders; Cemal favored the forced assimilation of Armeni ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Enver Pasha
İsmâil Enver (; ; 23 November 1881 – 4 August 1922), better known as Enver Pasha, was an Ottoman Empire, Ottoman Turkish people, Turkish military officer, revolutionary, and Istanbul trials of 1919–1920, convicted war criminal who was a part of the dictatorial triumvirate known as the "Three Pashas" (along with Talaat Pasha and Djemal Pasha, Cemal Pasha) in the Ottoman Empire. While stationed in Ottoman Macedonia, Enver joined the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), an organization affiliated with the Young Turks movement that was agitating against Sultan Abdul Hamid II's despotic rule. He was a key leader of the 1908 Young Turk Revolution, which reestablished the Ottoman constitution of 1876, Constitution and Elections in the Ottoman Empire, parliamentary democracy in the Ottoman Empire. Along with Ahmed Niyazi Bey, Ahmed Niyazi, Enver was hailed as "hero of the revolution". However, a series of crises in the Empire, including the 31 March Incident, the Balkan Wars, an ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
