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Schwertmannite
Schwertmannite is an iron-oxyhydroxysulfate mineral with an ideal chemical formula of or . It is an opaque tetragonal mineral typically occurring as brownish yellow encrustations. It has a Mohs hardness of 2.5 – 3.5 and a specific gravity of 3.77 – 3.99. It was first described for an occurrence in Finland in 1994 and named for Udo Schwertmann (born 1927), a soil scientist at the Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany. Schwertmannite (with a distinct "pin cushion" morphology) commonly forms in iron-rich, acidic sulfate waters in the pH-range of 2 – 4. The mineral was first recognised officially as a new mineral from a natural acid-sulfate spring occurrence at Pyhäsalmi, Finland. However, it is more commonly reported as an orange precipitate in streams and lakes affected by acid mine drainage. Schwertmannite is also known to be central to iron-sulfur geochemistry in acid sulfate soils associated with coastal lowlands.Burton, E.D., Bush, R.T., Sullivan, L.A. ( ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Acid Sulfate Soil
Acid sulfate soils are naturally occurring soils, sediments or organic substrates (e.g. peat) that are formed under waterlogged conditions. These soils contain iron sulfide minerals (predominantly as the mineral pyrite) and/or their oxidation products. In an undisturbed state below the water table, acid sulfate soils are benign. However, if the soils are drained, excavated or otherwise exposed to air, the sulfides react with oxygen to form sulfuric acid.Identification & Investigation of Acid Sulfate Soils (2006), Department of Environment, Western Australia. Retrieved froportal Release of this sulfuric acid from the soil can in turn release iron, aluminium, and other heavy metals and metalloids (particularly arsenic) within the soil. Once mobilized in this way, the acid and metals can create a variety of adverse impacts: killing vegetation, seeping into and acidifying groundwaterMosley LM, Palmer D, Leyden E, Fitzpatrick R, and Shand P (2014). Changes in acidity and metal geochemist ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Sulfate Minerals
The sulfate minerals are a class of minerals that include the sulfate ion () within their structure. The sulfate minerals occur commonly in primary evaporite depositional environments, as gangue minerals in hydrothermal veins and as secondary minerals in the oxidizing zone of sulfide mineral deposits. The chromate and manganate minerals have a similar structure and are often included with the sulfates in mineral classification systems.Klein, Cornelis and Cornelius S. Hurlbut, 1985, ''Manual of Mineralogy,'' 20th ed., John Wiley and Sons, New York, pp. 347–354 . Sulfate minerals include: *Anhydrous sulfates ** Barite BaSO4 ** Celestite SrSO4 ** Anglesite PbSO4 ** Anhydrite CaSO4 ** Hanksite Na22K(SO4)9(CO3)2Cl *Hydroxide and hydrous sulfates ** Gypsum CaSO4·2H2O **Chalcanthite CuSO4·5H2O ** Kieserite MgSO4·H2O ** Starkeyite MgSO4·4H2O ** Hexahydrite MgSO4·6H2O ** Epsomite MgSO4·7H2O ** Meridianiite MgSO4·11H2O **Melanterite FeSO4·7H2O ** Antlerite Cu3SO4(OH)4 ** ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Munich, Germany
Munich is the capital and most populous city of Bavaria, Germany. As of 30 November 2024, its population was 1,604,384, making it the third-largest city in Germany after Berlin and Hamburg. Munich is the largest city in Germany that is not a state of its own. It ranks as the 11th-largest city in the European Union. The metropolitan area has around 3 million inhabitants, and the broader Munich Metropolitan Region is home to about 6.2 million people. It is the List of EU metropolitan regions by GDP#2021 ranking of top four German metropolitan regions, third largest metropolitan region by GDP in the European Union. Munich is located on the river Isar north of the Alps. It is the seat of the Upper Bavaria, Upper Bavarian administrative region. With 4,500 people per km2, Munich is Germany's most densely populated municipality. It is also the second-largest city in the Bavarian language, Bavarian dialect area after Vienna. The first record of Munich dates to 1158. The city ha ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Iron(III) Minerals
Iron is a chemical element; it has symbol Fe () and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earth's outer and inner core. It is the fourth most abundant element in the Earth's crust, being mainly deposited by meteorites in its metallic state. Extracting usable metal from iron ores requires kilns or furnaces capable of reaching , about 500 °C (900 °F) higher than that required to smelt copper. Humans started to master that process in Eurasia during the 2nd millennium BC and the use of iron tools and weapons began to displace copper alloys – in some regions, only around 1200 BC. That event is considered the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age. In the modern world, iron alloys, such as steel, stainless steel, cast iron and special steels, are by far the most common industrial metals, due to their mechanical proper ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Jarosite
Jarosite is a basic hydrous sulfate of potassium and ferric iron (Fe-III) with a chemical formula of KFe3(SO4)2(OH)6. This sulfate mineral is formed in ore deposits by the oxidation of iron sulfides. Jarosite is often produced as a byproduct during the purification and refining of zinc and is also commonly associated with acid mine drainage and acid sulfate soil environments. Physical properties Jarosite has a trigonal crystal structure and is brittle, with basal cleavage, a hardness of 2.5–3.5, and a specific gravity of 3.15–3.26. It is translucent to opaque with a vitreous to dull luster, and is colored dark yellow to yellowish-brown. It can sometimes be confused with limonite or goethite with which it commonly occurs in the gossan (oxidized cap over an ore body). Jarosite is an iron analogue of the potassium aluminium sulfate, alunite. Solid solution series The alunite supergroup includes the alunite, jarosite, beudantite, crandallite and florencite subgroups. Th ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Alunite
Alunite is a hydroxylated aluminium potassium sulfate mineral, formula potassium, Kaluminium, Al3(sulfur, Soxygen, O4)2(Ohydrogen, H)6. It was first observed in the 15th century at Tolfa, near Rome, where it was mined for the manufacture of alum. First called ''aluminilite'' by Jean-Claude Delamétherie, J.C. Delamétherie in 1797, this name was contracted by François Sulpice Beudant, François Beudant three decades later to alunite. Alunite crystals morphologically are rhombohedron, rhombohedra with interfacial angles of 90° 50', causing them to resemble cubes. Crystal symmetry is trigonal. Minute glistening crystals have also been found loose in cavities in altered rhyolite. Alunite varies in color from white to yellow gray. The hardness on the Mohs scale is 4 and the specific gravity is between 2.6 and 2.8. It is insoluble in water or weak acids, but soluble in sulfuric acid. Sodium can substitute for potassium in the mineral, and when the sodium content is high, is call ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Upland And Lowland
Upland and lowland are conditional descriptions of a plain based on elevation above sea level. In studies of the ecology of freshwater rivers, habitats are classified as upland or lowland. Definitions Upland and lowland are portions of a plain that are conditionally categorized by their elevation above the sea level. Lowlands are usually no higher than , while uplands are somewhere around to . On unusual occasions, certain lowlands such as the Caspian Depression lie below sea level. Uplands areas tend to spike into valleys and mountains, forming mountain ranges while lowland areas tend to be uniformly flat, although both can vary such as the Mongolian Plateau. Upland habitats are cold, clear and rocky whose rivers are fast-flowing in mountainous areas; lowland habitats are warm with slow-flowing rivers found in relatively flat lowland areas, with water that is frequently colored by sediment and organic matter. These classifications overlap with the geological definitio ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Coast
A coast (coastline, shoreline, seashore) is the land next to the sea or the line that forms the boundary between the land and the ocean or a lake. Coasts are influenced by the topography of the surrounding landscape and by aquatic erosion, such as that caused by wind wave, waves. The geology, geological composition of rock (geology), rock and soil dictates the type of shore that is created. Earth has about of coastline. Coasts are important zones in natural ecosystems, often home to a wide range of biodiversity. On land, they harbor ecosystems, such as freshwater marsh, freshwater or estuary, estuarine wetlands, that are important for birds and other terrestrial animals. In wave-protected areas, coasts harbor salt marshes, mangroves, and seagrass meadow, seagrasses, all of which can provide nursery habitat for finfish, shellfish, and other aquatic animals. Rocky shores are usually found along exposed coasts and provide habitat for a wide range of sessility (motility), sessile ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Iron–sulfur World Hypothesis
The iron–sulfur world hypothesis is a set of proposals for the origin of life and the early evolution of life advanced in a series of articles between 1988 and 1992 by Günter Wächtershäuser, a Munich patent lawyer with a degree in chemistry, who had been encouraged and supported by philosopher Karl R. Popper to publish his ideas. The hypothesis proposes that early life may have formed on the surface of iron sulfide minerals, hence the name. It was developed by retrodiction (making a "prediction" about the past) from extant biochemistry (non-extinct, surviving biochemistry) in conjunction with chemical experiments. Origin of life Pioneer organism Wächtershäuser proposes that the earliest form of life, termed the "pioneer organism", originated in a volcanic hydrothermal flow at high pressure and high (100 °C) temperature. It had a composite structure of a mineral base with catalytic transition metal centers (predominantly iron and nickel, but also perhaps cobalt, manga ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Acid Mine Drainage
Acid mine drainage, acid and metalliferous drainage (AMD), or acid rock drainage (ARD) is the outflow of acidic water from metal mines and coal mines. Acid rock drainage occurs naturally within some environments as part of the rock weathering process but is exacerbated by large-scale earth disturbances characteristic of mining and other large construction activities, usually within rocks containing an abundance of sulfide minerals. Areas where the earth has been disturbed (e.g. construction sites or highway construction) may create acid rock drainage. In many localities, the liquid that drains from coal stocks, coal handling facilities, coal washeries, and coal waste tips can be highly acidic, and in such cases it is treated as acid rock drainage. These, combined with reduced pH, have a detrimental impact on the streams' aquatic environments. The same type of chemical reactions and processes may occur through the disturbance of acid sulfate soils formed under coastal or ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Acid Mine Drainage
Acid mine drainage, acid and metalliferous drainage (AMD), or acid rock drainage (ARD) is the outflow of acidic water from metal mines and coal mines. Acid rock drainage occurs naturally within some environments as part of the rock weathering process but is exacerbated by large-scale earth disturbances characteristic of mining and other large construction activities, usually within rocks containing an abundance of sulfide minerals. Areas where the earth has been disturbed (e.g. construction sites or highway construction) may create acid rock drainage. In many localities, the liquid that drains from coal stocks, coal handling facilities, coal washeries, and coal waste tips can be highly acidic, and in such cases it is treated as acid rock drainage. These, combined with reduced pH, have a detrimental impact on the streams' aquatic environments. The same type of chemical reactions and processes may occur through the disturbance of acid sulfate soils formed under coastal or ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
