|
Retorsion
Retorsion (from , from , influenced by Late Latin, 1585–1595, , a twisting, wringing it), a term used in international law, is an act perpetrated by one nation upon another in retaliation for a similar act perpetrated by the other nation. A typical example of retorsion is the use of comparably severe measures against citizens of the foreign nation found within the borders of the retaliating nation after the foreign nation has engaged in similar acts. It is different from a reprisal in that the retorsion is always an action in conformity with international law, though unmistakably an unfriendly one. Examples include international trade, where disputes within the World Trade Organization are typically tackled in this manner, if dispute settlement does not reach its goal. The term is also used to refer to the least aggressive response to a cyberattack. Retorsion also signifies the act by which an individual returns to his adversary evil for evil. See also * Revenge * Eye for an ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Reprisal
A reprisal is a limited and deliberate violation of international law to punish another sovereign state that has already broken them. Since the 1977 Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions (AP 1), reprisals in the laws of war are extremely limited, as they commonly breach the rights of non-combatants. Etymology The word came from French, where it originally meant "act of taking back", for example, raiding back the equivalent of cattle lost to an enemy raid. International law Reprisals refer to acts which are illegal if taken alone, but become legal when adopted by one state in retaliation for the commission of an earlier illegal act by another state. ICRC’s Database of Customary International Humanitarian Law states in Rule 145: "Where not prohibited by international law, belligerent reprisals are subject to stringent conditions." "Counter-reprisals" are generally not allowed. World War I 1914 Portugal-Germany dispute An example of reprisal is the Naulila dispute bet ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Eye For An Eye
"An eye for an eye" (, ) is a commandment found in the Book of Exodus 21:23–27 expressing the principle of reciprocal justice measure for measure. The earliest known use of the principle appears in the Code of Hammurabi, which predates the writing of the Hebrew Bible but not necessarily oral traditions. The law of exact retaliation (), or reciprocal justice, bears the same principle that a person who has injured another person is to be penalized to a similar degree by the injured party. In softer interpretations, it means the victim receives the estimated value of the injury in compensation. The intent behind the principle was to ''restrict'' compensation to the value of the loss. Definition and methods The term ''lex talionis'' does not always refer to literal eye-for-an-eye codes of justice (see mirror punishment), but rather applies to the broader class of legal systems that formulate penalties for specific crimes, which are thought to be fitting in their severity. Some p ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Late Latin
Late Latin is the scholarly name for the form of Literary Latin of late antiquity.Roberts (1996), p. 537. English dictionary definitions of Late Latin date this period from the 3rd to 6th centuries CE, and continuing into the 7th century in the Iberian Peninsula. This somewhat ambiguously defined version of Latin was used between the eras of Classical Latin and Medieval Latin. Scholars do not agree exactly when Classical Latin should end or Medieval Latin should begin. Being a written language, Late Latin is not the same as Vulgar Latin, or more specifically, the spoken Latin of the post-Imperial period. The latter served as the ancestor of the Romance languages. Although Late Latin reflects an upsurge in the use of Vulgar Latin vocabulary and constructs, it remains largely classical in its overall features, depending on the author who uses it. Some Late Latin writings are more literary and classical, but others are more inclined to the vernacular. As such it is an important ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Houghton Mifflin
The asterisk ( ), from Late Latin , from Ancient Greek , , "little star", is a typographical symbol. It is so called because it resembles a conventional image of a heraldic star. Computer scientists and mathematicians often vocalize it as star (as, for example, in ''the A* search algorithm'' or '' C*-algebra''). An asterisk is usually five- or six-pointed in print and six- or eight-pointed when handwritten, though more complex forms exist. Its most common use is to call out a footnote. It is also often used to censor offensive words. In computer science, the asterisk is commonly used as a wildcard character, or to denote pointers, repetition, or multiplication. History The asterisk was already in use as a symbol in ice age cave paintings. There is also a two-thousand-year-old character used by Aristarchus of Samothrace called the , , which he used when proofreading Homeric poetry to mark lines that were duplicated. Origen is known to have also used the asteris ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
International Law
International law, also known as public international law and the law of nations, is the set of Rule of law, rules, norms, Customary law, legal customs and standards that State (polity), states and other actors feel an obligation to, and generally do, obey in their mutual relations. In international relations, actors are simply the individuals and collective entities, such as states, International organization, international organizations, and non-state groups, which can make behavioral choices, whether lawful or unlawful. Rules are formal, typically written expectations that outline required behavior, while norms are informal, often unwritten guidelines about appropriate behavior that are shaped by custom and social practice. It establishes norms for states across a broad range of domains, including war and diplomacy, Trade, economic relations, and human rights. International law differs from state-based List of national legal systems, domestic legal systems in that it operates ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
International Trade
International trade is the exchange of capital, goods, and services across international borders or territories because there is a need or want of goods or services. (See: World economy.) In most countries, such trade represents a significant share of gross domestic product (GDP). While international trade has existed throughout history (for example Uttarapatha, Silk Road, Amber Road, salt roads), its economic, social, and political importance has been on the rise in recent centuries. Carrying out trade at an international level is a complex process when compared to domestic trade. When trade takes place between two or more states, factors like currency, government policies, economy, judicial system, laws, and markets influence trade. To ease and justify the process of trade between countries of different economic standing in the modern era, some international economic organizations were formed, such as the World Trade Organization. These organizations work towards the ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
World Trade Organization
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland that regulates and facilitates international trade. Governments use the organization to establish, revise, and enforce the rules that govern international trade in cooperation with the United Nations System. The WTO is the world's largest international economic organization, with 166 members representing over 98% of global trade and global GDP. The WTO facilitates trade in goods, trade in services, services and intellectual property among participating countries by providing a framework for negotiating trade agreements, which usually aim to reduce or eliminate tariffs, Import quota, quotas, and other Trade barrier, restrictions; these agreements are signed by representatives of member governments. (The document's printed folio numbers do not match the PDF page numbers.) and ratified by their legislatures. It also administers independent dispute resolution for enforcing ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Dispute Settlement In The World Trade Organization
Dispute settlement or dispute settlement system (DSS) is regarded by the World Trade Organization (WTO) as the central pillar of the multilateral international trade, trading system, and as the organization's "unique contribution to the stability of the world economy, global economy". A dispute arises when one WTO accession and membership, member country adopts a trade policy ''measure'' or takes some ''action'' that one or more fellow members consider to be a breach of WTO agreements or to be a failure to live up to obligations. By joining the WTO, member countries have agreed that if they believe fellow members are in violation of trade rules, they will use the Dispute Settlement Body, multilateral system of settling disputes instead of taking action unilaterally — this entails abiding by agreed procedures—Dispute Settlement Understanding—and respecting judgments, primarily of the Dispute Settlement Board (DSB), the WTO organ responsible for adjudication of disputes. [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Cyberattack
A cyberattack (or cyber attack) occurs when there is an unauthorized action against computer infrastructure that compromises the confidentiality, integrity, or availability of its content. The rising dependence on increasingly complex and interconnected computer systems in most domains of life is the main factor that causes vulnerability to cyberattacks, since virtually all computer systems have bugs that can be exploited by attackers. Although it is impossible or impractical to create a perfectly secure system, there are many defense mechanisms that can make a system more difficult to attack, making information security a field of rapidly increasing importance in the world today. Perpetrators of a cyberattack can be criminals, hacktivists, or states. They attempt to find weaknesses in a system, exploit them and create malware to carry out their goals, and deliver it to the targeted system. Once installed, the malware can have a variety of effects depending on its purpose. ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Revenge
Revenge is defined as committing a harmful action against a person or group in response to a grievance, be it real or perceived. Vengeful forms of justice, such as primitive justice or retributive justice, are often differentiated from more formal and refined forms of justice such as distributive justice or restorative justice. Function in society Social psychologist Ian Mckee states that the desire for the sustenance of power motivates vengeful behavior as a means of impression management: "People who are more vengeful tend to be those who are motivated by power, by authority and by the desire for status. They don't want to lose face". Vengeful behavior has been found across a majority of human societies throughout history. Some societies encourage vengeful behavior, which is then called a feud. These societies usually regard the honor of individuals and groups as of central importance. Thus, while protecting their reputation, an avenger feels as if they restore the pre ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
French Words And Phrases
French ( or ) is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. Like all other Romance languages, it descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire. French evolved from Northern Old Gallo-Romance, a descendant of the Latin spoken in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues d'oïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, which French ( Francien) largely supplanted. It was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul and by the Germanic Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 16th century onward, it was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, and Asia, and numerous French-based creole languages, most notably Haitian Creole, were established. A French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is an official language in 26 countries, as well as one of ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
International Law
International law, also known as public international law and the law of nations, is the set of Rule of law, rules, norms, Customary law, legal customs and standards that State (polity), states and other actors feel an obligation to, and generally do, obey in their mutual relations. In international relations, actors are simply the individuals and collective entities, such as states, International organization, international organizations, and non-state groups, which can make behavioral choices, whether lawful or unlawful. Rules are formal, typically written expectations that outline required behavior, while norms are informal, often unwritten guidelines about appropriate behavior that are shaped by custom and social practice. It establishes norms for states across a broad range of domains, including war and diplomacy, Trade, economic relations, and human rights. International law differs from state-based List of national legal systems, domestic legal systems in that it operates ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
