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Ractopamine
Ractopamine () is an animal feed additive used to promote leanness and increase food conversion efficiency in farmed animals in several countries, but banned in others. Pharmacologically, it is a phenol-based TAAR1 agonist and β adrenoreceptor agonist that stimulates β1 and β2 adrenergic receptors. It is most commonly administered to animals for meat production as ractopamine hydrochloride. It is the active ingredient in products marketed in the US as Paylean for swine, Optaflexx for cattle, and Topmax for turkeys. It was developed by Elanco Animal Health, a former division of Eli Lilly and Company. As of 2014, according to the Humane Society, the use of ractopamine was “banned or restricted” in 160 countries, including the European Union, China and Russia, while it is legal in 27 other countries, such as Japan, the United States, South Korea, and New Zealand. Commercial ractopamine is a mixture of all four possible stereoisomers. It is also a positional isomer of d ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Beta-adrenergic Agonist
Beta adrenergic agonists or beta agonists are medications that relax muscles of the airways, causing widening of the airways and resulting in easier breathing. They are a class of sympathomimetic agents, each acting upon the beta adrenoceptors. In general, pure beta-adrenergic agonists have the opposite function of beta blockers: beta-adrenoreceptor agonist ligands mimic the actions of both epinephrine- and norepinephrine- signaling, in the heart and lungs, and in smooth muscle tissue; epinephrine expresses the higher affinity. The activation of β1, β2 and β3 activates the enzyme, adenylate cyclase. This, in turn, leads to the activation of the secondary messenger cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP); cAMP then activates protein kinase A (PKA) which phosphorylates target proteins, ultimately inducing smooth muscle relaxation and contraction of the cardiac tissue. Function Activation of β1 receptors induces positive inotropic, chronotropic output of the cardiac muscle, ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Feed Additive
A feed additive is an additive of extra nutrient or drug for livestock. Such additives include vitamins, amino acids, fatty acids, minerals, pharmaceutical, fungal products and steroidal compounds. The additives might impact feed presentation, hygiene, digestibility, or effect on intestinal health.Merck Manual October 201Nutritional Requirements of Beef CattlePage accessed March 18, 2015 Examples Amino acids Methionine, lysine, and tryptophan are commonly deficient in animal diets, so these amino acids are added to feed. In the case of methionine, 2-Hydroxy-4-(methylthio)butyric acid is often use in the place of methionine. "Minerals" Several elements enhance the growth characteristics of animals. Elements themselves are rarely used as additives but derivatives thereof. Ethylenediamine dihydroiodide (EDDI) is added to pet food and cattle feed to prevent iodine deficiency. A controversial additive is arsenic, often supplied in the form of the organoarsenic compound called rox ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Positional Isomer
In chemistry, a structural isomer (or constitutional isomer in the IUPAC nomenclature) of a compound is a compound that contains the same number and type of atoms, but with a different connectivity (i.e. arrangement of bonds) between them. The term metamer was formerly used for the same concept. For example, butanol , methyl propyl ether , and diethyl ether have the same molecular formula but are three distinct structural isomers. The concept applies also to polyatomic ions with the same total charge. A classical example is the cyanate ion and the fulminate ion . It is also extended to ionic compounds, so that (for example) ammonium cyanate and urea are considered structural isomers,William F. Bynum, E. Janet Browne, Roy Porter (2014)''Dictionary of the History of Science'' page 218. and so are methylammonium formate and ammonium acetate . Structural isomerism is the most radical type of isomerism. It is opposed to stereoisomerism, in which the atoms and bonding s ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Heifer (cow)
Cattle (''Bos taurus'') are large, domesticated, bovid ungulates widely kept as livestock. They are prominent modern members of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus '' Bos''. Mature female cattle are called cows and mature male cattle are bulls. Young female cattle are called heifers, young male cattle are oxen or bullocks, and castrated male cattle are known as steers. Cattle are commonly raised for meat, for dairy products, and for leather. As draft animals, they pull carts and farm implements. Cattle are considered sacred animals within Hinduism, and it is illegal to kill them in some Indian states. Small breeds such as the miniature Zebu are kept as pets. Taurine cattle are widely distributed across Europe and temperate areas of Asia, the Americas, and Australia. Zebus are found mainly in India and tropical areas of Asia, America, and Australia. Sanga cattle are found primarily in sub-Saharan Africa. These types, sometimes cla ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Domestic Pig
The pig (''Sus domesticus''), also called swine (: swine) or hog, is an omnivorous, domesticated, even-toed, hoofed mammal. It is named the domestic pig when distinguishing it from other members of the genus '' Sus''. Some authorities consider it a subspecies of ''Sus scrofa'' (the wild boar or Eurasian boar); other authorities consider it a distinct species. Pigs were domesticated in the Neolithic, both in China and in the Near East (around the Tigris Basin). When domesticated pigs arrived in Europe, they extensively interbred with wild boar but retained their domesticated features. Pigs are farmed primarily for meat, called pork. The animal's skin or hide is used for leather. China is the world's largest pork producer, followed by the European Union and then the United States. Around 1.5 billion pigs are raised each year, producing some 120 million tonnes of meat, often cured as bacon. Some are kept as pets. Pigs have featured in human culture since Neolithic time ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Lean Meat
Meat is animal tissue, often muscle, that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and farmed other animals for meat since prehistory. The Neolithic Revolution allowed the domestication of vertebrates, including chickens, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and cattle, starting around 11,000 years ago. Since then, selective breeding has enabled farmers to produce meat with the qualities desired by producers and consumers. Meat is mainly composed of water, protein, and fat. Its quality is affected by many factors, including the genetics, health, and nutritional status of the animal involved. Without preservation, bacteria and fungi decompose and spoil unprocessed meat within hours or days. Meat is edible raw, but it is mostly eaten cooked, such as by stewing or roasting, or processed, such as by smoking or salting. The consumption of meat (especially red and processed meat, as opposed to fish and poultry) increases the risk of certain negative health outcomes including cancer, coron ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Muscle Fiber
A muscle cell, also known as a myocyte, is a mature contractile cell in the muscle of an animal. In humans and other vertebrates there are three types: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac (cardiomyocytes). A skeletal muscle cell is long and threadlike with many nuclei and is called a ''muscle fiber''. Muscle cells develop from embryonic precursor cells called myoblasts. Skeletal muscle cells form by fusion of myoblasts to produce multinucleated cells (syncytia) in a process known as myogenesis. Skeletal muscle cells and cardiac muscle cells both contain myofibrils and sarcomeres and form a striated muscle tissue. Cardiac muscle cells form the cardiac muscle in the walls of the heart chambers, and have a single central nucleus. Cardiac muscle cells are joined to neighboring cells by intercalated discs, and when joined in a visible unit they are described as a ''cardiac muscle fiber''. Smooth muscle cells control involuntary movements such as the peristalsis contractions in ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Protein Synthesis
Protein biosynthesis, or protein synthesis, is a core biological process, occurring inside cells, balancing the loss of cellular proteins (via degradation or export) through the production of new proteins. Proteins perform a number of critical functions as enzymes, structural proteins or hormones. Protein synthesis is a very similar process for both prokaryotes and eukaryotes but there are some distinct differences. Protein synthesis can be divided broadly into two phases: transcription and translation. During transcription, a section of DNA encoding a protein, known as a gene, is converted into a molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA). This conversion is carried out by enzymes, known as RNA polymerases, in the nucleus of the cell. In eukaryotes, this mRNA is initially produced in a premature form (pre-mRNA) which undergoes post-transcriptional modifications to produce mature mRNA. The mature mRNA is exported from the cell nucleus via nuclear pores to the cytoplasm of the c ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Dopamine Releasing Agent
A dopamine releasing agent (DRA) is a type of drug which induces the release of dopamine in the Body (biology), body and/or brain. No binding selectivity, selective DRAs are currently known. However, non-selective DRAs, including norepinephrine–dopamine releasing agents (NDRAs) like amphetamine and methamphetamine, serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine releasing agents (SNDRAs) like MDMA and mephedrone, and serotonin–dopamine releasing agents (SDRAs) like 5-chloro-αMT and BK-NM-AMT, are known. A closely related type of drug is a dopamine reuptake inhibitor (DRI). In contrast to the case of DRAs, many selective DRIs are known. Examples of selective DRIs include amineptine, modafinil, and vanoxerine. Selectivity No binding selectivity, selective and robust DRAs are currently known. The lack of known selective DRAs is related to the fact that it has proven extremely difficult to separate dopamine transporter (DAT) affinity (pharmacology), affinity from norepinephrine transpo ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Beta-adrenergic Receptor
The adrenergic receptors or adrenoceptors are a class of G protein-coupled receptors that are targets of many catecholamines like norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and epinephrine (adrenaline) produced by the body, but also many medications like beta blockers, beta-2 (β2) agonists and alpha-2 (α2) agonists, which are used to treat high blood pressure and asthma, for example. Many List of distinct cell types in the adult human body, cells have these receptors, and the binding of a catecholamine to the receptor will generally stimulate the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). The SNS is responsible for the fight-or-flight response, which is triggered by experiences such as exercise or fear-causing situations. This response Mydriasis, dilates pupils, increases heart rate, mobilizes energy, and diverts blood flow from non-essential organs to skeletal muscle. These effects together tend to increase physical performance momentarily. History By the turn of the 19th century, it was ag ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Trace Amine-associated Receptor 1
Trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1) is a trace amine-associated receptor (TAAR) protein that in humans is encoded by the ''TAAR1'' gene. TAAR1 is a primarily intracellular amine-activated and G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that is primarily expressed in several peripheral organs and cells (e.g., the stomach, small intestine, duodenum, and white blood cells), astrocytes, and in the intracellular milieu within the presynaptic plasma membrane (i.e., axon terminal) of monoamine neurons in the central nervous system (CNS). TAAR1 is one of six functional human TAARs, which are so named for their ability to bind endogenous amines that occur in tissues at trace concentrations. TAAR1 plays a significant role in regulating neurotransmission in dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin neurons in the CNS; it also affects immune system and neuroimmune system function through different mechanisms. Endogenous ligands of the TAAR1 include trace amines, monoamine neurotransmitter ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Murine
The Old World rats and mice, part of the subfamily Murinae in the family Muridae, comprise at least 519 species. Members of this subfamily are called murines. In terms of species richness, this subfamily is larger than all mammal families except the Cricetidae and Muridae, and is larger than all mammal orders except the bats and the remainder of the rodents. Description The Murinae are native to Africa, Europe, Asia, and Australia. They are terrestrial placental mammals. They have also been introduced to all continents except Antarctica, and are serious pest animals. This is particularly true in island communities where they have contributed to the endangerment and extinction of many native animals. Two prominent murine species have become vital laboratory animals: the brown rat and house mouse are both used as medical subjects. The murines have a distinctive molar pattern that involves three rows of cusps instead of two, the primitive pattern seen most frequently ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
