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Pemoline
Pemoline, formerly sold under the brand name Cylert among others, is a stimulant medication which was used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy,- it has since been discontinued in most countries due to rare but serious liver toxicity. The medication was taken by mouth. Common side effects include insomnia, decreased appetite, abdominal pain, irritability, and headaches, while rare cases of serious liver damage requiring liver transplantation or causing death have been reported. As a stimulant, Pemoline acts as a selective dopamine reuptake inhibitor and releasing agent via indirect agonism of dopamine receptors. In addition, it shows little activity with respect to norepinephrine, thus minimal to no cardiovascular or sympathomimetic effects in comparison to many other stimulants. Pemoline was first synthesized in 1913, but its stimulant activity was not discovered until the 1930s, nor used for ADHD until 1975. Between ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Dopamine Releasing Agent
A dopamine releasing agent (DRA) is a type of drug which induces the release of dopamine in the Body (biology), body and/or brain. No binding selectivity, selective DRAs are currently known. However, non-selective DRAs, including norepinephrine–dopamine releasing agents (NDRAs) like amphetamine and methamphetamine, serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine releasing agents (SNDRAs) like MDMA and mephedrone, and serotonin–dopamine releasing agents (SDRAs) like 5-chloro-αMT and BK-NM-AMT, are known. A closely related type of drug is a dopamine reuptake inhibitor (DRI). In contrast to the case of DRAs, many selective DRIs are known. Examples of selective DRIs include amineptine, modafinil, and vanoxerine. Selectivity No binding selectivity, selective and robust DRAs are currently known. The lack of known selective DRAs is related to the fact that it has proven extremely difficult to separate dopamine transporter (DAT) affinity (pharmacology), affinity from norepinephrine transpo ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Liver Toxicity
Hepatotoxicity (from ''hepatic toxicity'') implies chemical-driven liver damage. Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is a cause of acute and chronic liver disease caused specifically by medications and the most common reason for a drug to be withdrawn from the market after approval. The liver plays a central role in transforming and clearing chemicals and is susceptible to the toxicity from these agents. Certain medicinal agents, when taken in overdoses (e.g. acetaminophen, paracetamol) and sometimes even when introduced within therapeutic ranges (e.g. halothane), may injure the organ. Other chemical agents, such as those used in laboratories and industries, natural chemicals (e.g., alpha-amanitin), and herbal remedies (two prominent examples being kava, though the causal mechanism is unknown, and comfrey, through pyrrolizidine alkaloid content) can also induce hepatotoxicity. Chemicals that cause liver injury are called hepatotoxins. More than 900 drugs have been implicated ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Stimulant
Stimulants (also known as central nervous system stimulants, or psychostimulants, or colloquially as uppers) are a class of drugs that increase alertness. They are used for various purposes, such as enhancing attention, motivation, cognition, Mood disorder, mood, and physical activity, physical performance. Some stimulants occur naturally, while others are exclusively synthetic. Common stimulants include caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine, methylphenidate, and modafinil. Stimulants may be subject to varying forms of regulation, or outright prohibition, depending on jurisdiction. Stimulants increase activity in the sympathetic nervous system, either directly or indirectly. Prototypical stimulants increase synaptic concentrations of neurotransmitter, excitatory neurotransmitters, particularly norepinephrine and dopamine (e.g., methylphenidate). Other stimulants work by binding to the Receptor (biochemistry), receptors of excitatory neurotransmitters (e.g., nicotine) or by ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Headache
A headache, also known as cephalalgia, is the symptom of pain in the face, head, or neck. It can occur as a migraine, tension-type headache, or cluster headache. There is an increased risk of Depression (mood), depression in those with severe headaches. Headaches can occur as a result of many conditions. There are a number of different classification systems for headaches. The most well-recognized is that of the International Headache Society, which classifies it into more than 150 types of Primary headache disorder, primary and secondary headaches. Causes of headaches may include dehydration; fatigue; sleep deprivation; Stress (biology), stress; the effects of medications (overuse) and recreational drugs, including withdrawal; viral infections; loud noises; head injury; rapid ingestion of a very cold food or beverage; and dental or sinus issues (such as sinusitis). Treatment of a headache depends on the underlying cause, but commonly involves analgesic, pain medication (esp ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Withdrawn Drug
Drugs or medicines may be withdrawn from commercial markets because of risks to patients, but also because of commercial reasons (e.g. lack of demand and relatively high production costs) or because it turns out that they are less effective in clinical practice than premarketing efficacy trials suggested. When risks or harms are the cause, withdrawals will usually have been prompted by unexpected adverse effects that were not detected during the early, premaketing, clinical trials, i.e. they became apparent only from postmarketing surveillance data collected from the wider community during routine use over longer periods of time. This list is not limited to drugs that were ever approved by specific jurisdictions. Some of them (lumiracoxib, rimonabant, tolrestat, ximelagatran, and zimeldine, for example) received marketing approval in Europe but had not yet been approved for marketing in the USA when adverse effects became clear and they were withdrawn from the market. Some drugs i ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Cardiovascular
In vertebrates, the circulatory system is a system of organs that includes the heart, blood vessels, and blood which is circulated throughout the body. It includes the cardiovascular system, or vascular system, that consists of the heart and blood vessels (from Greek meaning ''heart'', and Latin meaning ''vessels''). The circulatory system has two divisions, a systemic circulation or circuit, and a pulmonary circulation or circuit. Some sources use the terms ''cardiovascular system'' and ''vascular system'' interchangeably with ''circulatory system''. The network of blood vessels are the great vessels of the heart including large elastic arteries, and large veins; other arteries, smaller arterioles, capillaries that join with venules (small veins), and other veins. The circulatory system is closed in vertebrates, which means that the blood never leaves the network of blood vessels. Many invertebrates such as arthropods have an open circulatory system with a heart ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Norepinephrine
Norepinephrine (NE), also called noradrenaline (NA) or noradrenalin, is an organic compound, organic chemical in the catecholamine family that functions in the brain and human body, body as a hormone, neurotransmitter and neuromodulator. The name "noradrenaline" (from Latin '':wikt:ad-, ad'', "near", and '':wikt:ren, ren'', "kidney") is more commonly used in the United Kingdom and the rest of the world, whereas "norepinephrine" (from Ancient Greek :wikt:ἐπί, ἐπῐ́ (''epí''), "upon", and :wikt:νεφρός, νεφρός (''nephrós''), "kidney") is usually preferred in the United States. "Norepinephrine" is also the international nonproprietary name given to norepinephrine (drug), the drug. Regardless of which name is used for the substance itself, parts of the body that produce or are affected by it are referred to as noradrenergic. The general function of norepinephrine is to mobilize the brain and body for action. Norepinephrine release is lowest during sleep, rise ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Dopamine Receptor
Dopamine receptors are a class of G protein-coupled receptors that are prominent in the vertebrate central nervous system (CNS). Dopamine receptors activate different effectors through not only G-protein coupling, but also signaling through different protein (dopamine receptor-interacting proteins) interactions. The neurotransmitter dopamine is the primary endogenous ligand for dopamine receptors. Dopamine receptors are implicated in many neurological processes, including motivational and incentive salience, cognition, memory, learning, and fine motor control, as well as modulation of neuroendocrine signaling. Abnormal dopamine receptor signaling and dopaminergic nerve function is implicated in several neuropsychiatric disorders. Thus, dopamine receptors are common neurologic drug targets; antipsychotics are often dopamine receptor antagonists while psychostimulants are typically indirect agonists of dopamine receptors. Subtypes The existence of multiple types of receptors for ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Agonist
An agonist is a chemical that activates a Receptor (biochemistry), receptor to produce a biological response. Receptors are Cell (biology), cellular proteins whose activation causes the cell to modify what it is currently doing. In contrast, an Receptor antagonist, antagonist blocks the action of the agonist, while an inverse agonist causes an action opposite to that of the agonist. Etymology The word originates from the Ancient Greek, Greek word (''agōnistēs''), "contestant; champion; rival" < (''agōn''), "contest, combat; exertion, struggle" < (''agō''), "I lead, lead towards, conduct; drive." Types of agonists Receptor (biochemistry), Receptors can be activated by either endogenous agonists (such as hormones and neurotransmitters) or exogenous agonists (such as medication, drugs), resulting in a biological response. A physiological agonism an ...[...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
