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Landsturm
In various European countries, the term Landstorm (, Swedish and , roughly "land assault", ) was historically used to refer to militia or military units composed of conscripts who are not in regular army. It is particularly associated with Prussia, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Sweden, and the Netherlands. Germany Prussia from 1813 In Prussia after the of 21 April 1813, all the male population from ages 15 to 60 who were capable of military service and who were not in the standing army or the ''Landwehr'', came under the authority of the ''Landsturm'', which effectively formed the last national military reserve. King Frederick William III of Prussia established the Prussian ''Landsturm'' as irregular military forces on 21 April 1813 by royal edict – the decree appeared in the ' (German: Prussian Code of Law) (pp. 79–89). The 1813 edict called for heroic resistance by any means against the French invasion. As a model and an explicit example, it took the Spanish '' Reglamen ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Irregular Military
Irregular military is any military component distinct from a country's regular armed forces, representing non-standard militant elements outside of conventional governmental backing. Irregular elements can consist of militias, private armies, mercenaries, or other non-state actors, though no single definition exists beyond exclusion from national service. Without standard military unit organization, various more general names are often used; such organizations may be called a ''troop'', ''group'', ''unit'', ''column'', ''band'', or ''force''. Irregulars are soldiers or warriors that are members of these organizations, or are members of special military units that employ irregular military tactics. This also applies to irregular infantry and irregular cavalry units. Irregular warfare is warfare employing the tactics commonly used by irregular military organizations. This often overlaps with asymmetrical warfare, avoiding large-scale combat and focusing on small, stealth ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Bavarian Army Reform (1868)
After the experience of the Bavarian Army in the war against Prussia, in 1868 the Bavarian War Minister Siegmund Freiherr von Pranckh fundamentally reformed the army. His main measures were: * Reforms of the military reinforcement system: #Abolition of the practice of avoiding conscription by hiring a paid substitute, called a ''Einsteher'' ("Proxy") or ''Einstandsmann'' ("Stand-In"),''Einstandsmann'' was originally a legal term. If a person who was in prison - for owing a debt or fine, was being tried for an offense, or was convicted of a crime - needed to leave to attend to an important matter, they could be granted temporary parole. In exchange a family member or friend (the "Stand-in") would attest to their character and volunteer to stand in their place in jail. When the conditions of the parole were met (if the person returned or the money was paid), the stand-in would be released. to volunteer to take their place. #Creation of ''Dienstzeit'' (compulsory military service-ti ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Bavarian Army
The Bavarian Army () was the army of the Electorate of Bavaria, Electorate (1682–1806) and then Kingdom of Bavaria, Kingdom (1806–1918) of Bavaria. It existed from 1682 as the standing army of Bavaria until the merger of the military sovereignty () of Bavaria into that of the German State in 1919. The Bavarian Army was never comparable to the armies of the Great Powers of the 19th century, but it did provide the Wittelsbach dynasty with sufficient scope of action, in the context of effective alliance politics, to transform Bavaria from a territorially-disjointed small state to the second-largest state of the German Empire after Prussia. History 1682–1790: From the first standing army to the Napoleonic Wars The of 1681 obliged Bavaria to provide troops for the Army of the Holy Roman Empire, Imperial army. Moreover, the establishment of a standing army was increasingly seen as a sign of nation state, nation-statehood. At a field camp in Schwabing on 12 October 1682, the ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Landwehr
''Landwehr'' (), or ''Landeswehr'', is a German language term used in referring to certain national army, armies, or militias found in nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Europe. In different context it refers to large-scale, low-strength fortifications. In German, the word means "defence of the country"; but the term as applied to an insurrectional militia is very ancient, and ''lantveri'' are mentioned in ''Baluzii Capitularia'', as quoted in Henry Hallam's ''Middle Ages'', i. 262, 10th edition. Austria-Hungary Austrian ''Landwehr'' The Imperial-Royal Landwehr, Austrian ''Landwehr'' was one of three components that made up the Austro-Hungarian Army, ground forces of the Austria-Hungary, Austro-Hungarian Empire between 1868 and 1918, and it was composed of recruits from the Cisleithanian parts of the empire. Intended as a national defence force alongside the Royal Hungarian Honvéd, Royal Hungarian ''Landwehr'' (or ''Honvéd''), the ''Landwehr'' was officially established b ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Civilian
A civilian is a person who is not a member of an armed force. It is war crime, illegal under the law of armed conflict to target civilians with military attacks, along with numerous other considerations for civilians during times of war. If a civilian engages in hostilities, they are an unlawful combatant and temporarily lose their protection from attack. It is slightly different from a non-combatant, because some non-combatants are not civilians (for example, people who are not in a military but support war effort or military operations, military chaplains, or military personnel who are serving with a neutral country). Civilians in the territories of a party to an armed conflict are entitled to certain privileges under the customary international law, customary laws of war and Treaty, international treaties such as the Fourth Geneva Convention. The privileges that they enjoy under international law depends on whether the conflict is an internal one (a civil war) or an internationa ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Conscription
Conscription, also known as the draft in the United States and Israel, is the practice in which the compulsory enlistment in a national service, mainly a military service, is enforced by law. Conscription dates back to antiquity and it continues in some countries to the present day under various names. The modern system of near-universal national conscription for young men dates to the French Revolution in the 1790s, where it became the basis of a very large and powerful military. Most European nations later copied the system in peacetime, so that men at a certain age would serve 1 to 8 years on active duty and then transfer to the reserve force. Conscription is controversial for a range of reasons, including conscientious objection to military engagements on religious or philosophical grounds; political objection, for example to service for a disliked government or unpopular war; sexism, in that historically men have been subject to the draft in the most cases; and ideol ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Reich Law
thumbnail, upright=1.0, German penal code (from pre II. World War but edited after) A Reich law is a law which is made for an entire realm, and decided on at the national level. In modern Germany such laws are called federal laws. An overview of Germany Up until 1806 Reich laws were made by the Imperial Diet of the Holy Roman Empire. The right to propose such laws was exclusive to the Holy Roman Emperor and the Prince-elector. Every proposal was firstly discussed by the Prince-electorate and after their appraisal it got passed onto the imperial Council of princes after which it reached the free imperial cities. For the law to officially come into effect they had to be approved by the Emperor. In 1871 the German Reich which developed out of the North German Confederation of 1867 as a Nation state. The laws of the confederation were taken over and from then on called ''Reich laws''. First, the Reichstag of the German Empire decided on the laws, which later had to be reviewed ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
North German Confederation
The North German Confederation () was initially a German military alliance established in August 1866 under the leadership of the Kingdom of Prussia, which was transformed in the subsequent year into a confederated state (a ''de facto'' federal state) that existed from July 1867 to December 1870. A milestone of the German Unification, it was the earliest continual legal predecessor of the modern German nation-state known today as the Federal Republic of Germany. The Confederation came into existence following the Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 over the lordship of two duchies (Schleswig-Holstein) resulting in the Peace of Prague, where Prussia pressured Austria and its allies into accepting the dissolution of the existing German Confederation (an association of German states under the leadership of the Austrian Empire), thus paving the way for the Lesser German version of German unification in the form of a federal state in Northern Germany. The co ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Francoist Spain
Francoist Spain (), also known as the Francoist dictatorship (), or Nationalist Spain () was the period of Spanish history between 1936 and 1975, when Francisco Franco ruled Spain after the Spanish Civil War with the title . After his death in 1975, Spain transitioned into a democracy. During Franco's rule, Spain was officially known as the Spanish State (). The informal term "Fascist Spain" is also used, especially before and during World War II. During its existence, the nature of the regime evolved and changed. Months after the start of the Civil War in July 1936, Franco emerged as the dominant rebel military leader and he was proclaimed head of state on 1 October 1936, ruling a dictatorship over the territory which was controlled by the Nationalist faction. The 1937 Unification Decree, which merged all of the parties which supported the rebel side, led to Nationalist Spain becoming a single-party regime under the FET y de las JONS. The end of the Civil War in 1939 bro ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Fascism
Fascism ( ) is a far-right, authoritarian, and ultranationalist political ideology and movement. It is characterized by a dictatorial leader, centralized autocracy, militarism, forcible suppression of opposition, belief in a natural social hierarchy, subordination of individual interests for the perceived interest of the nation or Race (human categorization), race, and strong regimentation of society and the economy. Opposed to communism, democracy, liberalism, Pluralism (political philosophy), pluralism, and socialism, fascism is at the far right of the traditional left–right spectrum.; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; Fascism rose to prominence in early-20th-century Europe. The first fascist movements Italian fascism, emerged in Italy during World War I, before Fascism in Europe, spreading to other European countries, most notably Nazi Germany, Germany. Fascism also had adherents outside of Europe. Fascists saw World War I as a revolution that brought massive changes to the nature ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Partisan (military)
A partisan is a member of a domestic irregular military force formed to oppose control of an area by a foreign power or by an army of occupation by some kind of insurgent activity. The term can apply to the field element of resistance movements. The most common use in present parlance in several languages refers to occupation resistance fighters during World War II, especially under the Yugoslav partisan leader Josip Broz Tito. History before 1939 The initial concept of partisan warfare involved the use of troops raised from the local population in a war zone (or in some cases regular forces) who would operate behind enemy lines to disrupt communications, seize posts or villages as forward-operating bases, ambush convoys, impose war taxes or contributions, raid logistical stockpiles, and compel enemy forces to disperse and protect their base of operations. George Satterfield has analyzed the "partisan warfare" () in the Netherlands campaigns of 1673-1678 during the Franc ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Magna Carta
(Medieval Latin for "Great Charter"), sometimes spelled Magna Charta, is a royal charter of rights agreed to by King John of England at Runnymede, near Windsor, on 15 June 1215. First drafted by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Cardinal Stephen Langton, to make peace between the unpopular king and a group of rebel barons who demanded that the King confirm the Charter of Liberties, it promised the protection of church rights, protection for the barons from illegal imprisonment, access to swift and impartial justice, and limitations on feudal payments to the Crown, to be implemented through a council of 25 barons. Neither side stood by their commitments, and the charter was annulled by Pope Innocent III, leading to the First Barons' War. After John's death, the regency government of his young son, Henry III, reissued the document in 1216, stripped of some of its more radical content, in an unsuccessful bid to build political support for their cause. At the end of th ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
