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Kaskians
The Kaska (also Kaška, later Tabal (state), Tabalian Kasku and Gasga) were a loosely affiliated Bronze Age non-Indo-European tribal people, who spoke the unclassified Kaskian language and lived in mountainous East Pontus (region), Pontic Anatolia, known from Hittites, Hittite sources. They lived in the mountainous region between the core Hittite region in eastern Anatolia and the Black Sea, and are cited as the reason that the later Hittites#History, Hittite Empire never extended northward to that area. They are sometimes identified with the Caucones known from Greek records. History The Kaska, probably originating from the eastern shore of the Propontis,Cyril Toumanoff, Toumanoff, Cyril (1967). ''Studies in Christian Caucasian History'', pp. 55–56. Georgetown University Press. may have displaced the speakers of the Palaic language from their homes in Pala (Anatolia), Pala. The Kaska first appear in the Hittite prayer inscriptions that date from the reign of Hantili II, c. 14 ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Kaskian Language
Kaskian (Kaskean) was the language of the Kaskians (Kaska) of northeastern Bronze Age Anatolia in the mountains along the Black Sea coast. The ''Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture'' lists the Kaskians as non–Indo-European. There are a number of theories regarding the language family to which it belonged. It is sometimes suspected that Kaskian was related to the pre-Hittite Hattic language, based on toponyms and personal names; the Hattic moon god was named Hattic_language#Vocabulary, Kasku. Conversely, the Kaskian language may have been an Indo-European languages, Indo-European language, perhaps related to Thraco-Phrygian. There may also be connections to the Northwest Caucasian languages; the name ''Kaskian'' may be cognate with an old name for Circassia, and the name of one of the tribes in the Kaskian confederation, the Abešla, may be cognate with the endonym of the Abkhaz people and some Circassian people, suggesting the Kaskians proper and Abešla might have been the a ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Hittites
The Hittites () were an Anatolian peoples, Anatolian Proto-Indo-Europeans, Indo-European people who formed one of the first major civilizations of the Bronze Age in West Asia. Possibly originating from beyond the Black Sea, they settled in modern-day Turkey in the early 2nd millennium BC. The Hittites formed a series of Polity, polities in north-central Anatolia, including the kingdom of Kussara (before 1750 BC), the Kültepe, Kanesh or Nesha Kingdom (–1650 BC), and an empire centered on their capital, Hattusa (around 1650 BC). Known in modern times as the Hittite Empire, it reached its peak during the mid-14th century BC under Šuppiluliuma I, when it encompassed most of Anatolia and parts of the northern Levant and Upper Mesopotamia, bordering the rival empires of the Hurri-Mitanni and Assyrians. Between the 15th and 13th centuries BC, the Hittites were one of the dominant powers of the Near East, coming into conflict with the New Kingdom of Egypt, the Middle Assyrian Empi ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Hayasa-Azzi
Hayasa-Azzi or Azzi-Hayasa (, ) was a Late Bronze Age confederation in the Armenian Highlands and/or Pontic region of Asia Minor. The Hayasa-Azzi confederation was in conflict with the Hittite Empire in the 14th century BC, leading up to the collapse of Hatti around 1190 BCE. It has long been thought that Hayasa-Azzi may have played a significant role in the ethnogenesis of Armenians. Location Hittite inscriptions deciphered in the 1920s by the Swiss scholar Emil Forrer testify to the existence of the mountainous country, Hayasa-Azzi, lying to the east of Hatti in the Upper Euphrates region. Its western border seems to have alternated between Samuha (probably just west of modern Sivas) and Kummaha (likely modern Kemah, Erzincan). These areas later geographically overlapped, at least partially, with the Upper Armenia province of the later Kingdom of Armenia and the neighboring region of Lesser Armenia. Hayasa-Azzi seems to have been bordered by Isuwa (later known ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Zalpuwa
Zalpa (also called Zalba, Zalpah, Zalpuwa) were ancient regions mentioned in Assyrian, Mari and Hittite records. The toponyms appear in a variety of forms and contexts and likely refer to multiple similarly named regions. They have been located on the Pontic coast of the Black Sea, along the Euphrates in northern Mesopotamia and along the Balikh river in northern Syria. Etymology The etymology is uncertain but the toponyms may have been Sumerian formulaic theophoric names derived from ''KA.ZAL''. The same syllabary is found in the Akkadian toponym ''ka-zal-lu''''ki'' in records of the twenty-second through sixteenth centuries BC,Douglas Frayne, "Akkad", in Sargonic and Gutian Periods (2234-2113 BC), Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 5-218, 1993 which could explain the presence of multiple forms and uses of the toponyms in the historical record.Holland, Gary B. and Zorman, Marina. (2007). The Tale of Zalpa: Myth, Morality and Coherence in Hittite Narrative. Italia ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Pontus (region)
Pontus or Pontos (; ,) is a region on the southern coast of the Black Sea, located in the modern-day eastern Black Sea region of Turkey. The name was applied to the coastal region and its mountainous hinterland (rising to the Pontic Alps in the east) by the Greeks who colonized the area in the Archaic Greece, Archaic period and derived from the Greek name of the Black Sea: (), 'Hospitable Sea', or simply ''Pontos'' () as early as the Aeschylus, Aeschylean ''The Persians, Persians'' (472 BC) and Herodotus' ''Histories (Herodotus), Histories'' (). Having originally no specific name, the region east of the river Halys River, Halys was spoken of as the country ''()'', , and hence it acquired the name of Pontus, which is first found in Xenophon's ''Anabasis (Xenophon), Anabasis'' (). The extent of the region varied through the ages but generally extended from the borders of Colchis (modern western Georgia (country), Georgia) until well into Paphlagonia in the west, with varying amo ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Arnuwanda I
Arnuwanda I was a Hittite great king during the early 14th century BC, ruling in c. 1390–1380/1370 BC. Origins Arnuwanda's parents are unknown. Because both Arnuwanda and his wife, Queen Ašmu-Nikkal, are described on their respective seals as the children of Tudḫaliya II (sometimes called Tudḫaliya I or I/II), this was long interpreted as a marriage between siblings. This, however, was clearly forbidden by Hittite custom and law, and it is now generally agreed that while Ašmu-Nikkal was indeed the daughter of Tudḫaliya II, Arnuwanda was only his son-in-law and possibly adoptive son, as the daughter's ''antiyant'' husband, an acceptable heir in the absence of a son. Association on the throne with Tudḫaliya II Arnuwanda I began his reign in association with his father-in-law and predecessor, Tudḫaliya II, perhaps for as many as a dozen years or so. The simultaneous attestation of both men as great king indicates an association on the throne, something unusual in Hit ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Sapinuwa
Sapinuwa (sometimes Shapinuwa; Hittite language, Hittite: ''Šapinuwa'') was a Bronze Age Hittites, Hittite city at the location of modern Ortaköy, Çorum, Ortaköy in the province Çorum in Turkey about 70 kilometers east of the Hittite capital of Hattusa. It was one of the major Hittite religious and administrative centres, a military base and an occasional residence of several List of Hittite kings, Hittite kings. The palace at Sapinuwa is discussed in several texts from Hattusa. Excavations Ortaköy was identified as the site of ancient Sapinuwa after a local farmer contacted Çorum Museum; he found two clay cuneiform tablets in his field. This led to a survey conducted in 1989, and more discoveries. Ankara University quickly obtained permission from the Ministry of Culture to begin excavation. This commenced in the following year, in 1990, under the leadership of Aygül and Mustafa Süel, and has continued since. Building A was excavated first, and then Building B in 199 ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Hattusa
Hattusa, also Hattuşa, Ḫattuša, Hattusas, or Hattusha, was the capital of the Hittites, Hittite Empire in the late Bronze Age during two distinct periods. Its ruins lie near modern Boğazkale, Turkey (originally Boğazköy) within the great loop of the Kızılırmak River (Hittite: ''Marashantiya''; Greek: ''Halys River, Halys''). Charles Texier brought attention to the ruins after his visit in 1834. Over the following century, sporadic exploration occurred, involving different archaeologists. The Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft, German Oriental Society and the German Archaeological Institute began systematic excavations in the early 20th century, which continue to this day. Hattusa was added to the List of World Heritage Sites in Turkey, UNESCO World Heritage Site list in 1986. History The earliest traces of settlement on the site are from the sixth millennium BC during the Chalcolithic period. Toward the end of the 3rd Millennium BC the Hattian people established a settle ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Isuwa
Isuwa (transcribed Išuwa and sometimes rendered Ishuwa), was a kingdom founded by the Hurrians, which came under Hittite sovereignty towards 1600 BC as a result of their struggle with the Hittites. Location Isuwa was located on the eastern bank of the river Euphrates, opposite modern-day Malatya and along the south bank of the Murat Su. The important crossing of the Euphrates from Malatya to Elazığ is referred to in the Hittite texts as the 'Isuwa crossing' (''eberti'' KUR ''URU''''Iśuwa''). Isuwa covers the present-day province of Tunceli. The plain had favourable climatic conditions due to the abundance of water from springs and rainfall. Irrigation of fields was possible without the need to build complex canals. The river valley was well suited for intensive agriculture, while livestock could be kept at the higher altitudes. The mountains possessed rich deposits of copper which were mined in antiquity. History The area was one of the places where agriculture develope ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Nerik
Nerik ( Hittite: ''Nerik(ka)''"Nerik(ka)." ''Reallexikon der Assyriologie.'') was a Bronze Age settlement to the north of the Hittite capitals Hattusa and Sapinuwa, probably in the Pontic region. Since 2005–2009, the site of Nerik has been identified as Oymaağaç Höyük, on the eastern side of the Kızılırmak River, northwest of Vezirköprü. History It was occupied in the Middle Bronze and Late Bronze. The Hittites held it as sacred to a Storm-god who was the son of Wurušemu, Sun-goddess of Arinna. The weather god is associated or identified with Mount Zaliyanu near Nerik, responsible for bestowing rain on the city. Middle Bronze Hittite Old Kingdom Nerik was founded by Hattic language speakers as Narak; in the Hattusa archive, tablet CTH 737 records a Hattic incantation for a festival there. Under Hattusili I, the Nesite-speaking Hittites took over Nerik. They maintained a spring festival called " Puruli" in honor of the Storm-god of Nerik. In it, the celebrants ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Maşat Höyük
Maşat Höyük is a Bronze Age Hittite archaeological site 100 km nearly east of Boğazkale/Hattusa, about 20 km south of Zile, Tokat Province, north-central Turkey, not far from the Çekerek River. The site is under agricultural use and is plowed. It was first excavated in the 1970s. During the Hittite period, it is believed to have been named Tappika (Tabigga, Tabikka). History Early Bronze The site dates back to at least the Early Bronze Age. Most of the EBA remains on the upper city were destroyed in the construction of the Hittite palace. Some remain in the lower town. Late Bronze The enigmatic marauding Kaskas burned this site during Tudhaliya II's reign. The Hittites rebuilt it under the next king Suppiluliuma I. Cuneiform tablets from the site form a new archive of Hittite texts. The letters found at Masat Höyük were edited by Sedat Alp in a two-volume edition in Turkish and German in 1991. Most tablets here are correspondence between the site an ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Tudhaliya II
Tudḫaliya II (sometimes identified with and designated Tudḫaliya I) was a Hittite great king in the late 15th/early 14th century BC, ruling in perhaps c. 1425–c. 1390 BC. He was the father-in-law and predecessor of Arnuwanda I. Identity The numbering of Hittite kings named Tudḫaliya varies between scholars because of debate over the identity (or not) between the first two bearers of the name. A Tudḫaliya, now attested as the son of a certain Kantuzzili, succeeded Muwatalli I, after the latter was murdered by the officials Ḫimuili and Kantuzzili (not necessarily identical to Tudḫaliya’s father). The same or a distinct Tudḫaliya, the king discussed in the present article, was the father-in-law and predecessor of Arnuwanda I. Because of uncertainty, scholars are divided in the interpretation of the evidence. Many scholars envision a single Tudḫaliya (I or I/II ), while others consider two separate kings, Tudḫaliya I and Tudḫaliya II. The rationale for m ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
