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Entacapone
Entacapone, sold under the brand name Comtan among others, is a medication commonly used in combination with other medications for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Entacapone together with levodopa and carbidopa allows levodopa to have a longer effect in the brain and reduces Parkinson's disease signs and symptoms for a greater length of time than levodopa and carbidopa therapy alone. Entacapone is a selective and reversible inhibitor of the enzyme catechol-''O''-methyltransferase (COMT). When taken together with levodopa (L-DOPA) and carbidopa, entacapone stops COMT from breaking down levodopa, resulting in an overall increase of levodopa remaining in the brain and body. Entacapone does not cross into the brain and hence does not inhibit COMT there. Carbidopa/levodopa/entacapone (Stalevo), a medication developed by Orion Pharma and marketed by Novartis, is a single tablet formulation that contains levodopa, carbidopa, and entacapone. Medical uses Entacapone is ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Carbidopa/levodopa/entacapone
Carbidopa/levodopa/entacapone, sold under the brand name Stalevo among others, is a dopaminergic fixed-dose combination medication that contains carbidopa, levodopa, and entacapone for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Medical uses Carbidopa/levodopa/entacapone is indicated for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. In the European Union it is indicated for the treatment of adults with Parkinson's disease and end-of-dose motor fluctuations not stabilized on levodopa/dopa decarboxylase (DDC) inhibitor treatment. Side effects Sometimes a wearing off effect may occur at the end of the dosing interval, where a patient may feel Parkinson's symptoms. Urine, saliva, or sweat may be discolored (dark color such as red, brown, or black) after taking carbidopa/levodopa/entacapone. Drug interactions Carbidopa/levodopa/entacapone is contraindicated in patients taking a class of antidepressant drugs known as non-selective monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors such as phenelzine and tranyl ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Catechol-O-methyl Transferase
Catechol-''O''-methyltransferase (COMT; ) is one of several enzymes that degrade catecholamines (neurotransmitters such as dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine), catecholestrogens, and various drugs and substances having a catechol structure. In humans, catechol-''O''-methyltransferase protein is encoded by the COMT gene. Two isoforms of COMT are produced: the soluble short form (S-COMT) and the membrane bound long form (MB-COMT). As the regulation of catecholamines is impaired in a number of medical conditions, several pharmaceutical drugs target COMT to alter its activity and therefore the availability of catecholamines. COMT was first discovered by the biochemist Julius Axelrod in 1957. Function Catechol-''O''-methyltransferase is involved in the inactivation of the catecholamine neurotransmitters (dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine). The enzyme introduces a methyl group to the catecholamine, which is donated by S-adenosyl methionine (SAM). Any compound havin ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Levodopa
Levodopa, also known as L-DOPA and sold under many brand names, is a dopaminergic medication which is used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD) and certain other conditions like dopamine-responsive dystonia and restless legs syndrome. The drug is usually used and formulated in combination with a peripherally selective aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AAAD) inhibitor like carbidopa or benserazide. Levodopa is taken by mouth, by inhalation, through an intestinal tube, or by administration into fat (as foslevodopa). Side effects of levodopa include nausea, the wearing-off phenomenon, dopamine dysregulation syndrome, and levodopa-induced dyskinesia, among others. The drug is a centrally permeable monoamine precursor and prodrug of dopamine and hence acts as a dopamine receptor agonist. Chemically, levodopa is an amino acid, a phenethylamine, and a catecholamine. The major reason for enhanced risks for levodopa induced dyskinesia (LID) and OFF phases durin ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Parkinson's Disease
Parkinson's disease (PD), or simply Parkinson's, is a neurodegenerative disease primarily of the central nervous system, affecting both motor system, motor and non-motor systems. Symptoms typically develop gradually and non-motor issues become more prevalent as the disease progresses. The motor symptoms are collectively called parkinsonism and include tremors, bradykinesia, spasticity, rigidity as well as postural instability (i.e., difficulty maintaining balance). Non-motor symptoms develop later in the disease and include behavior change (individual), behavioral changes or mental disorder, neuropsychiatric problems such as sleep abnormalities, psychosis, anosmia, and mood swings. Most Parkinson's disease cases are idiopathic disease, idiopathic, though contributing factors have been identified. Pathophysiology involves progressive nerve cell death, degeneration of nerve cells in the substantia nigra, a midbrain region that provides dopamine to the basal ganglia, a system invo ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Novartis
Novartis AG is a Swiss multinational corporation, multinational pharmaceutical company, pharmaceutical corporation based in Basel, Switzerland. Novartis is one of the largest pharmaceutical companies in the world and was the eighth largest by revenue in 2024. Novartis manufactures the drugs clozapine (Clozaril), diclofenac (Voltaren; sold to GlaxoSmithKline in 2015 deal), carbamazepine (Tegretol), valsartan (Diovan), imatinib mesylate (Gleevec/Glivec), cyclosporine (Neoral/Sandimmune), letrozole (Femara), methylphenidate (Ritalin; produced by Sandoz since 2023), terbinafine (Lamisil), deferasirox (Exjade), and others. Novartis was formed in 1996 by the merger of Ciba-Geigy and Sandoz. It was considered the largest corporate merger in history during that time. The pharmaceutical and agrochemical divisions of both companies formed Novartis as an independent entity. The name Novartis was based on the Latin terms, ''novae artes'' (new skills). After the merger, other Ciba-Geigy and ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Carbidopa
Carbidopa, sold under the brand name Lodosyn, is a medication given to people with Parkinson's disease in order to inhibit peripheral metabolism of levodopa. This property is significant in that it allows a greater proportion of administered levodopa to cross the blood–brain barrier for central nervous system effect, instead of being peripherally metabolised into substances unable to cross said barrier. Pharmacology Carbidopa inhibits aromatic L-amino-acid decarboxylase (DOPA decarboxylase or DDC), an enzyme important in the biosynthesis of serotonin from and in the biosynthesis of dopamine (DA) from . DDC exists both outside of (body periphery) and within the confines of the blood–brain barrier. Carbidopa is used in the treatment of, among other diseases, Parkinson's disease (PD), a condition characterized by death of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Increased dopamine availability may increase the effectiveness of the remaining neurons and alleviate sympto ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Liver Disease
Liver disease, or hepatic disease, is any of many diseases of the liver. If long-lasting it is termed chronic liver disease. Although the diseases differ in detail, liver diseases often have features in common. Liver diseases File:Ground glass hepatocytes high mag cropped 2.jpg, Ground glass hepatocytes File:Primary biliary cirrhosis intermed mag much cropping.jpg, Primary biliary cirrhosis File:Buddchiari2.PNG, Budd–Chiari syndrome File:Non-alcoholic_fatty_liver_disease1.jpg, Micrograph of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease There are more than a hundred different liver diseases. Some of the most common are: * Fascioliasis, a parasitic infection of liver caused by a liver fluke of the genus '' FascioIa'', mostly '' FascioIa hepatica''. * Hepatitis, inflammation of the liver, is caused by various viruses ( viral hepatitis) also by some liver toxins (e.g. alcoholic hepatitis), autoimmunity ( autoimmune hepatitis) or hereditary conditions. * Alcoholic liver disease is a h ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Bile Duct
A bile duct is any of a number of long tube-like structures that carry bile, and is present in most vertebrates. The bile duct is separated into three main parts: the fundus (superior), the body (middle), and the neck (inferior). Bile is required for the digestion of food and is secreted by the liver into passages that carry bile toward the hepatic duct. It joins the cystic duct (carrying bile to and from the gallbladder) to form the common bile duct which then opens into the intestine. Structure The top half of the common bile duct is associated with the liver, while the bottom half of the common bile duct is associated with the pancreas, through which it passes on its way to the intestine. It opens into the part of the intestine called the duodenum via the ampulla of Vater. Segments The biliary tree (see below) is the whole network of various sized ducts branching through the liver. The path is as follows: bile canaliculi → canals of Hering → interlobular bil ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Excretion
Excretion is elimination of metabolic waste, which is an essential process in all organisms. In vertebrates, this is primarily carried out by the lungs, Kidney (vertebrates), kidneys, and skin. This is in contrast with secretion, where the substance may have specific tasks after leaving the Cell (biology), cell. For example, placental mammals expel urine from the bladder through the urethra, which is part of the excretory system. Unicellular organisms discharge waste products directly through the surface of the cell. During life activities such as cellular respiration, several chemical reactions take place in the body. These are known as metabolism. These chemical reactions produce waste products such as carbon dioxide, water, Salt (chemistry), salts, urea and uric acid. Accumulation of these wastes beyond a level inside the body is harmful to the body. The excretory organs remove these wastes. This process of removal of metabolic waste from the body is known as excretion. Proce ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Allergic Reaction
Allergies, also known as allergic diseases, are various conditions caused by hypersensitivity of the immune system to typically harmless substances in the environment. These diseases include Allergic rhinitis, hay fever, Food allergy, food allergies, atopic dermatitis, allergic asthma, and anaphylaxis. Symptoms may include allergic conjunctivitis, red eyes, an itchy rash, sneeze, sneezing, coughing, a rhinorrhea, runny nose, shortness of breath, or swelling. Note that food intolerances and food poisoning are separate conditions. Common allergens include pollen and certain foods. Metals and other substances may also cause such problems. Food, insect stings, and medications are common causes of severe reactions. Their development is due to both genetic and environmental factors. The underlying mechanism involves immunoglobulin E antibodies (IgE), part of the body's immune system, binding to an allergen and then to FcεRI, a receptor on mast cells or basophils where it triggers ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Diário Oficial Da União
The ''Diário Oficial da União'' (literally ''Official Diary of the Union''), abbreviated DOU, is the government gazette, official gazette of the Federal Government of Brazil, Federal Government of Brazil. It is published since 1 October 1862 and was created via the Imperial Decree 1,177 of its 9 September as the ''Official Journal of the Empire of Brazil''. Its current name was adopted after Brazil became a federal republic, and the "Union" came into being as the legal personality of the new federal government. The official journal is published by the Imprensa Nacional, Brazilian National Press. Though the journal has been published since 1862, it had many predecessors, as follows: # Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro (10/9/1808 – 29.12.1821) # Gazeta do Rio (1/1/1822 – 31/12/1822) # Diário do Governo (2/1/1823 – 28/6/1833) # Diário Fluminense (21/5/1824 – 24/4/1831) # Correio Oficial (1/7/1833 – 30/6/1836) e (2/1/1830 – 30/12/1840) # Without proper journal (31/12/1840 – ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Liver Dysfunction
Liver disease, or hepatic disease, is any of many diseases of the liver. If long-lasting it is termed chronic liver disease. Although the diseases differ in detail, liver diseases often have features in common. Liver diseases File:Ground glass hepatocytes high mag cropped 2.jpg, Ground glass hepatocytes File:Primary biliary cirrhosis intermed mag much cropping.jpg, Primary biliary cirrhosis File:Buddchiari2.PNG, Budd–Chiari syndrome File:Non-alcoholic_fatty_liver_disease1.jpg, Micrograph of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease There are more than a hundred different liver diseases. Some of the most common are: * Fascioliasis, a parasitic infection of liver caused by a liver fluke of the genus '' FascioIa'', mostly '' FascioIa hepatica''. * Hepatitis, inflammation of the liver, is caused by various viruses ( viral hepatitis) also by some liver toxins (e.g. alcoholic hepatitis), autoimmunity (autoimmune hepatitis) or hereditary conditions. * Alcoholic liver disease is a hepati ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
