Zilan massacre
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The Zilan massacre ( ku, Komkujiya Zîlanê, tr, 1=Zilan Katliamı or Zilan Deresi Katliamı, etc.) was the
massacre A massacre is the killing of a large number of people or animals, especially those who are not involved in any fighting or have no way of defending themselves. A massacre is generally considered to be morally unacceptable, especially when per ...
of thousands of Kurdish civilians by the
Turkish Land Forces The Turkish Land Forces ( tr, Türk Kara Kuvvetleri), or Turkish Army (Turkish: ), is the main branch of the Turkish Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. The army was formed on November 8, 1920, after the collapse of the ...
on the orders of
İsmet İnönü Mustafa İsmet İnönü (; 24 September 1884 – 25 December 1973) was a Turkish army officer and statesman of Kurdish descent, who served as the second President of Turkey from 11 November 1938 to 22 May 1950, and its Prime Minister three tim ...
in the Zilan Valley of
Van Province Van Province ( tr, Van ili, ku, Parezgêha Wanê, Armenian: Վանի մարզ) is a province in the Eastern Anatolian region of Turkey, between Lake Van and the Iranian border. It is 19,069 km2 in area and had a population of 1,035,418 at ...
on 12/13 July 1930, during the Ararat rebellion in
Ağrı Province The Ağrı Province ( tr, Ağrı ili, ku, Parêzgeha Agiriyê) is a Provinces of Turkey, province in eastern Turkey, bordering Iran to the east, Kars Province, Kars to the north, Erzurum Province, Erzurum to the northwest, Muş Province, Muş a ...
. The massacre took place to the north of the town of
Erciş Erciş (; ku, Erdiş; hy, Ականց, Akants, historically , ''Arjesh'') is a town and district located in the Van Province, Turkey on Lake Van. History of Artchesh During Classical Antiquity, the town was known as Arsissa, and Archesh (Arč ...
on
Lake Van Lake Van ( tr, Van Gölü; hy, Վանա լիճ, translit=Vana lič̣; ku, Gola Wanê) is the largest lake in Turkey. It lies in the far east of Turkey, in the provinces of Van and Bitlis in the Armenian highlands. It is a saline soda lake ...
. It was carried out by the
IX Corps 9 Corps, 9th Corps, Ninth Corps, or IX Corps may refer to: France * 9th Army Corps (France) * IX Corps (Grande Armée), a unit of the Imperial French Army during the Napoleonic Wars Germany * IX Corps (German Empire), a unit of the Imperial Germ ...
of the Third Army under the command of Ferik (
Lieutenant General Lieutenant general (Lt Gen, LTG and similar) is a three-star military rank (NATO code OF-8) used in many countries. The rank traces its origins to the Middle Ages, where the title of lieutenant general was held by the second-in-command on the ...
)
Salih Omurtak Salih Omurtak (1889–23 June 1954) was a Turkish general and the fourth Chief of the General Staff of the Turkish Armed Forces. Biography He was born 1889 in Thessaloniki, in the Salonica Vilayet of the Ottoman Empire (present-day Greece). ...
. The number of people killed in the massacre ranges from 4,500 women and elderly to 15,000.Yusuf Mazhar, ''Cumhuriyet'', 16 Temmuz 1930, ''... Zilan harekatında imha edilenlerin sayısı 15.000 kadardır. Zilan Deresi ağzına kadar ceset dolmuştur...'' Ahmet Kahraman, ''ibid'', p. 211, '' Karaköse, 14 (Özel muhabirimiz bildiriyor) ...'' Ayşe Hür
"Osmanlı'dan bugüne Kürtler ve Devlet-4"
, ''
Taraf ''Taraf'' ("Side" in Turkish) was a liberal newspaper in Turkey. It had distinguished itself by opposing interference by the Turkish military in the country's social and political affairs. It was distributed nationwide, and had been in circulati ...
'', October 23, 2008, Retrieved August 16, 2010.


Background

After the Sheikh Said rebellion, on 8 September 1925, the Reform Council for the East () was established by Kemal Atatürk and it prepared the Report for Reform in the East (), which provided for special administrative arrangements for the Eastern areas and introduced the
Inspector-General An inspector general is an investigative official in a civil or military organization. The plural of the term is "inspectors general". Australia The Inspector-General of Intelligence and Security (Australia) (IGIS) is an independent statutory off ...
system. This plan forced Kurdish aristocrats and religious leaders to relocate to other parts of Turkey. On 17 July 1927, with the "Law on the Transfer of Certain People from Eastern Regions to the Western Provinces" (Turkish: ''Bazı Eşhasın Şark Menatıkından Garp Vilâyetlerine Nakillerine Dair Kanun''), the target of the
forced migration Forced displacement (also forced migration) is an involuntary or coerced movement of a person or people away from their home or home region. The UNHCR defines 'forced displacement' as follows: displaced "as a result of persecution, conflict, g ...
was extended. On 5 October 1927, in
Greater Lebanon The State of Greater Lebanon ( ar, دولة لبنان الكبير, Dawlat Lubnān al-Kabīr; french: État du Grand Liban), informally known as French Lebanon, was a state declared on 1 September 1920, which became the Lebanese Republic ( ar, ...
, the Kurdish nationalist organization ''
Xoybûn Xoybûn or Khoyboun ( ku, ,Xoybûn خۆیبوون) was a Kurdish nationalist political party, that is known for leading the Ararat rebellion, commanded by Ihsan Nuri. Many Armenians joined the movement as well, the party was active in all parts ...
'' was founded by former members of other Kurdish nationalist organisations such as Kürdistan Teali Cemiyeti, Kürt Millet Fırkası, and
Comite de Independence Kurde Propargite (IUPAC name 2-(4-tert-butylphenoxy)cyclohexyl prop-2-yne-1-sulfonate, trade names Mitex, Omite and Comite) is a pesticide used to kill mites (an acaricide). Symptoms of excessive exposure are eye and skin irritation, and possibly sensi ...
, together with Kurdish intellectuals who took refuge in
Iraq Iraq,; ku, عێراق, translit=Êraq officially the Republic of Iraq, '; ku, کۆماری عێراق, translit=Komarî Êraq is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered by Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq ...
,
Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
, and
Syria Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...
, with the help of former members of the
Dashnaktsutyun The Armenian Revolutionary Federation ( hy, Հայ Յեղափոխական Դաշնակցութիւն, ՀՅԴ (Classical Armenian orthography, classical spelling), abbr. ARF or ARF-D) also known as Dashnaktsutyun (collectively referred to as Dash ...
. In 1927 ''Xoybûn'' (led by
Celadet Alî Bedirxan Celadet Alî Bedirxan ( ku, جەلادەت عالی بەدرخان, translit=Celadet Alî Bedirxan; 26 April 1893 – 1951), also known as , was a Kurdish diplomat, writer, linguist, journalist and political activist. He held a master's degr ...
,
Kamuran Alî Bedirxan Kamuran Ali Bedirxan ( ku, Kamiran Alî Bedirxan ,کامران عالی بەدرخان, born 21 August 1895 in Istanbul, Ottoman Empire; died 6 December 1978 in Paris) was a Kurdish politician, lawyer and writer. Family He came from the family ...
,
Ekrem Cemilpaşa Ekrem Cemilpaşa or Ekrem Cemil Paşa (Burc) or Ekrem Cemilpaşazade (22 February 1891, Diyarbakır – 31 December 1973, Damascus) was a Kurdish politician and officer. Early life and education He was born in 1891 to Kasım Bey, a member of t ...
, Memdûh Selîm, and others) decided to promote
Ihsan Nuri Ihsan Nuri, also known as Ihsan Nuri Pasha ( ku, Îhsan Nûrî Paşa ,ئیحسان نووری پاشا), 1892 or 1893, Bitlis – 25 March 1976, Tehran) was a Kurdish soldier and politician, former officer of the Ottoman and Turkish Army, ...
, a former officer in the Ottoman and Turkish armies, to general (pasha), and sent him to
Erzurum Erzurum (; ) is a city in eastern Anatolia, Turkey. It is the largest city and capital of Erzurum Province and is 1,900 meters (6,233 feet) above sea level. Erzurum had a population of 367,250 in 2010. The city uses the double-headed eagle as ...
with 20 comrades. They published a newspaper named ''Agirî'' and, on October 8, 1927, declared the independence of the
Republic of Ararat The Republic of Ararat, or Kurdish Republic of Ararat,Abbas Vali, ''Essays on the origins of Kurdish nationalism'', Mazda Publishers, 2003, p. 199./ref> ( ku, کۆماری ئارارات, translit=Komara Agiriyê and ku, Komara Araratê) was ...
. Also in October 1927, ''Xoybûn'' made appeals to the
Great Powers A great power is a sovereign state that is recognized as having the ability and expertise to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess military and economic strength, as well as diplomatic and soft power in ...
and the
League of Nations The League of Nations (french: link=no, Société des Nations ) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference that ...
, and appointed
Ibrahim Heski Ibrahim Heski or Ibrahim Pasha Haski TelloDana Adams Schmidt, ''Journey among brave men'', Little, Brown, 1964p. 57. ( ku, Biroyê Heskê Têlî;? - July 25, 1931, Siah Cheshmeh, Iran), was a Kurdish people, Kurdish soldier, politician and presiden ...
, who was one of the chieftains of Jalali tribe, as governor of Agrî province.Mehmet Köçer, "Ağrı İsyanı (1926–1930)", '' Fırat Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi'', Cilt: 14, Sayı: 2
s. 385.


Cabinet decision

On 9 May 1928, the Turkish government enacted an amnesty law. Amnesty was offered to all oppositional Kurds willing to submit to the Kemalist government, and Kurdish nationalists were freed from prison.Paul J. White, ''Primitive rebels or revolutionary modernizers?: the Kurdish national movement in Turkey'', Zed Books, 2000, , p. 78. However, attempts by the Turkish government at initiating meaningful negotiations failed. The Turkish government then decided to negotiate directly with Ihsan Nuri Pasha, but this effort was also in vain. On 29 December 1929, President
Mustafa Kemal Mustafa ( ar, مصطفى , Muṣṭafā) is one of the names of Prophet Muhammad, and the name means "chosen, selected, appointed, preferred", used as an Arabic given name and surname. Mustafa is a common name in the Muslim world. Given name Mo ...
(Atatürk) led the cabinet meeting, with participation of the Chief of the General Staff
Fevzi Çakmak Mustafa Fevzi Çakmak (12 January 1876 – 10 April 1950) was a Turkish field marshal ('' Mareşal'') and politician. He served as the Chief of General Staff from 1918 and 1919 and later the Minister of War of the Ottoman Empire in 1920. He lat ...
and
İbrahim Tali Öngören İbrahim Tali Öngören (1875–1952) was a Turkish military officer and politician. Education and early life He attended the medical academy of the Ottoman military and during the Turco-Italian war he was deployed to Tripolitania where he met ...
, the
Inspector General An inspector general is an investigative official in a civil or military organization. The plural of the term is "inspectors general". Australia The Inspector-General of Intelligence and Security (Australia) (IGIS) is an independent statutory off ...
of the First Inspectorate-General. A decision was adopted (cabinet decision No. 8692) to begin a military operation against Mount Ararat in June 1930.Faik Bulut, ''Devletin Gözüyle Türkye'de Kürt İsyanları'', Yön Yayınları, 1991, p. 190.


Order of the General Staff

On 7 January 1930,
General Staff A military staff or general staff (also referred to as army staff, navy staff, or air staff within the individual services) is a group of officers, enlisted and civilian staff who serve the commander of a division or other large military un ...
of the Republic of Turkey sent an order to IX Corps (as follows) with the text of the cabinet decision itself: *Villages inhabited by Kurds between Bulakbaşı and Şıhlı Köyü and places of refuge will be occupied. And let rebels debar from livelihood bases. *After cleaning the district of Kurds, follow towards the line of Ararat peak and establish garrisons in occupied territories. *Only mobile
gendarmerie Wrong info! --> A gendarmerie () is a military force with law enforcement duties among the civilian population. The term ''gendarme'' () is derived from the medieval French expression ', which translates to " men-at-arms" (literally, ...
forces will winter between 1930 and 1931. In district no residential areas, except needs for gendarmerie regiments, will not be left. *In this wise, Kurds debarred from food and housing needs will be distributed or be forced to take refuge in
Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
. In this case, problem will be solved with Iran. *The operation will begin in the last week of June 1930 and before the harvest season. *The commander of IX Corps will direct the military operation.


Postponement of the offensive against Mount Ararat

On March 18, 1930, Salih (Omurtak) was appointed the commander of
IX Corps 9 Corps, 9th Corps, Ninth Corps, or IX Corps may refer to: France * 9th Army Corps (France) * IX Corps (Grande Armée), a unit of the Imperial French Army during the Napoleonic Wars Germany * IX Corps (German Empire), a unit of the Imperial Germ ...
. Armed hostilities were initiated by Turkish military against the Ararat insurgents on 11 June 1930. Xoybûn appealed for help for Kurds throughout
Kurdistan Kurdistan ( ku, کوردستان ,Kurdistan ; lit. "land of the Kurds") or Greater Kurdistan is a roughly defined geo-cultural territory in Western Asia wherein the Kurds form a prominent majority population and the Kurdish culture, Kurdish la ...
. İhsan Nuri sent an offensive order to Îbrahîm Agha dated 18 June 1930. A Turkish Captain Zühtü (Güven), who was an officer of the 2nd Mobile Gendarmerie Battalion at Iğdır, got this order from a Kurdish rebel. There was wide response to the insurgents' appeal for help, and the Turks temporarily abandoned their offensive against Mount Ararat. On June 19–20, 1930, hundreds of rebels, led by the sons of Kör Hüseyin Pasha (former commander of the North group of the Hamidiye regiments) and Emin Pasha's sons, crossed the border from Persia and cut the telegraph line between Çaldıran and Beyazit. More than one hundred of them raided the center of Zeylan district and the station of
gendarmerie Wrong info! --> A gendarmerie () is a military force with law enforcement duties among the civilian population. The term ''gendarme'' () is derived from the medieval French expression ', which translates to " men-at-arms" (literally, ...
. They made their own tribesmen of the district join them. This Kurdish offensive, and offensives at
Patnos Patnos ( Armenian: Բադնոց, Latin transliteration: Badnoc‘ or Patnoc‘, Kurdish: Panos) was a historically important Armenian city, is now a district of Ağrı Province of Turkey on a plain surrounded by high mountains including Süphan ...
and Çaldıran, would be named the
Zeylan Rebellion Dutch Ceylon ( Sinhala: Tamil: ) was a governorate established in present-day Sri Lanka by the Dutch East India Company. Although the Dutch managed to capture most of the coastal areas in Sri Lanka, they were never able to control the Kandy ...
(''Zeylân İsyanı'' or ''Zeylân Ayaklanması'') by the Turkish authority. According to Salih's official report dated 2 July 1930, about the situation in the north of
Lake Van Lake Van ( tr, Van Gölü; hy, Վանա լիճ, translit=Vana lič̣; ku, Gola Wanê) is the largest lake in Turkey. It lies in the far east of Turkey, in the provinces of Van and Bitlis in the Armenian highlands. It is a saline soda lake ...
, 350–400 rebels led by Kör Hüseyin's sons and Emin Pasha's sons were in the Patnos area with the support of the surrounding villages of Sofu Mustafa, Kâni, Yukarı Romik, Çakırbey, Gürgüre, Haçlı, Koru, Harabe Kürk, and Çavuş. About 400 rebels led by Seyit Resul were in the Zeylân area with the support of the surrounding villages of Şurik, Su Souk, Kadir Asker, Münevver, Sivik, Ağı, Dedeli, and Şeytan Ava. An unknown number of rebels led by Yusuf Abdal were in the Çaldıran area surrounded by the villages of Aşağı Çilli, Şeyh Rumi, Alikelle, Haçan, Kaymaz, Şeyh Sucu.


Massacre

The Turkish army used two corps (
VII Corps 7th Corps, Seventh Corps, or VII Corps may refer to: * VII Corps (Grande Armée), a corps of the Imperial French army during the Napoleonic Wars * VII Corps (German Empire), a unit of the Imperial German Army prior to and during World War I * VII ...
and IX Corps) and 80 aircraft for the cleaning operation from 8 July 1930.Yönetim Zamandizini 1930 yılı, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti İdare Tarihi Araştırması (TİDATA), Ankara Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Kamu Yönetimi Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi: 2, Ankara, 2007, p. 180
78th page of Pdf file
''12 Temmuz'da Zeylan deresi civarındaki eşkıya imha edildi.''
Generally the date that the massacre took place was considered as 13 July 1930, but Yusuf Mazhar, who was the special correspondent of the daily ''
Cumhuriyet ''Cumhuriyet'' (; English: " Republic") is the oldest up-market Turkish daily newspaper. It has been described as "the most important independent public interest newspaper in contemporary Turkey". The newspaper was awarded the ''Freedom of Pres ...
'' (Turkey's most widely read daily paper in 1930-1940s), reported by telephone on 12 July 1930 "the cleaning in districts of
Erciş Erciş (; ku, Erdiş; hy, Ականց, Akants, historically , ''Arjesh'') is a town and district located in the Van Province, Turkey on Lake Van. History of Artchesh During Classical Antiquity, the town was known as Arsissa, and Archesh (Arč ...
,
Mount Süphan Mount Süphan ( tr, Süphan Dağı, ku, Sîpanê Xelatê, hy, Սիփան, Sipan) is a stratovolcano located in eastern Turkey, immediately north of Lake Van. It is the second highest volcano in Turkey, with an elevation of , and has the third h ...
and Zeylân was completely finished." According to the daily ''
Cumhuriyet ''Cumhuriyet'' (; English: " Republic") is the oldest up-market Turkish daily newspaper. It has been described as "the most important independent public interest newspaper in contemporary Turkey". The newspaper was awarded the ''Freedom of Pres ...
'' dated 16 July 1930, about 15,000 people were killed and Zilan River was filled with dead bodies as far as its mouth.Ayşe Hür
"Bu kaçıncı isyan, bu kaçıncı harekât?"
, ''
Taraf ''Taraf'' ("Side" in Turkish) was a liberal newspaper in Turkey. It had distinguished itself by opposing interference by the Turkish military in the country's social and political affairs. It was distributed nationwide, and had been in circulati ...
'', December 23, 2007, Retrieved August 16, 2010.
On 15 July 1930, Ibrahim Tali Öngören, the general inspector of the First Inspectorate-General, explained that annihilation was performed by troops with people's help, more than thousand militias were lost, villagers who helped rebels were also annihilated. The British
Foreign Office Foreign may refer to: Government * Foreign policy, how a country interacts with other countries * Ministry of Foreign Affairs, in many countries ** Foreign Office, a department of the UK government ** Foreign office and foreign minister * Unit ...
reported "The conviction here is that the Turkish 'success' near Ergish and Zilan were really gained over a few armed men and a large percentage of
non-combatant Non-combatant is a term of art in the law of war and international humanitarian law to refer to civilians who are not taking a direct part in hostilities; persons, such as combat medics and military chaplains, who are members of the belligerent ...
s."


Witnesses

According to Nazi Erol, the wife of Şükrü (Erol) (eldest son of the chieftain of Bekiri tribe), her first child Salih and all of her women were killed. She survived the massacre because she was hidden under their corpses. According to Mehmet Pamak's grandfather, thousands of people—men, women, children and elderly—were massacred by
machine-gun A machine gun is a fully automatic, rifled autoloading firearm designed for sustained direct fire with rifle cartridges. Other automatic firearms such as automatic shotguns and automatic rifles (including assault rifles and battle rifles) ar ...
fire, and blood flowed out of the valley for days. Pamak's aunt (a baby) and his 80-year-old great-grandmother were
bayonet A bayonet (from French ) is a knife, dagger, sword, or spike-shaped weapon designed to fit on the end of the muzzle of a rifle, musket or similar firearm, allowing it to be used as a spear-like weapon.Brayley, Martin, ''Bayonets: An Illustr ...
ed to death. According to Kakil Erdem, one of the living eyewitnesses of the Zilan massacre, thirty-five of his relatives were killed, and soldiers cut and opened the abdomen of a pregnant woman. Before his eyes, three of his relatives were scalped and two of his brothers were beaten to death."77 yıl önce yaşanan Zilan Katliamı'nın tanığı: Hamilelerin karnını deştiler, akrabalarımın kafatasını yüzdüler"
, Dicle Haber Ajansı, September 21, 2007, 09:56, Retrieved August 18, 2010.


Aftermath


In turkish media

The next morning’s edition of
Cumhuriyet ''Cumhuriyet'' (; English: " Republic") is the oldest up-market Turkish daily newspaper. It has been described as "the most important independent public interest newspaper in contemporary Turkey". The newspaper was awarded the ''Freedom of Pres ...
, then a state-linked newspaper, described the outcome of the operation in no uncertain terms. “The sweeping began. All those in the Zilan Valley were exterminated, and none of them survived.”


Cultural influences

Musa Anter Musa Anter (1920 – 20 September 1992), also known as "Apê Musa" ( ku, Apê Musa, literally "Uncle Musa"), was a Kurdish writer, journalist and intellectual and was assassinated by Turkish JITEM in September 1992. Early life and education He w ...
, for the first time, learned about and discussed the massacres of the Kurds, such as the Zilan massacre of 1930, the Dersim massacre in 1938, and the Thirty-three bullets massacre, when he published a journal entitled ''Dicle Kaynağı'' (Tigris Spring) with three other friends from Dicle Student Dormitory in 1948.
Yaşar Kemal Yaşar Kemal (born Kemal Sadık Gökçeli; 6 October 1923 – 28 February 2015) was a Turkish writer and human rights activist and one of Turkey's leading writers. He received 38 awards during his lifetime and had been a candidate for the Nobel ...
, one of Turkey's leading writers, learned about the Zilan Valley massacre during interviews in the 1950s and was influenced by the massacre. He described massacres in his novel entitled ''Deniz Küstü'' ("The Sea-Crossed Fisherman", 1978). The protagonist of the novel, Selim Balıkçı participated in the Ararat campaigns, was wounded in the face and transferred to Cerrahpaşa Hospital (İstanbul) for treatment.


Zilan massacre and censorship

In 2007, Ercan Öksüz and Oktay Candemir,
journalist A journalist is an individual that collects/gathers information in form of text, audio, or pictures, processes them into a news-worthy form, and disseminates it to the public. The act or process mainly done by the journalist is called journalism ...
s working for the Dicle News Agency, interviewed 94-year-old living eyewitness Kakil Erdem and published the interview with the title "''Zilan Katliamı'nın Tanığı Konuştu"'' (Witness of Zilan Massacre Talks). The Van 2nd Criminal Court of First Instance tried the journalists for "inciting hatred and hostility". In 2009, each of them received a prison sentence of 18 months."Üç Ayda 190 Düşünce Suçlusu!"
''
Bianet Bianet (acronym for tr, Bağımsız İletişim Ağı, lit="Independent Communication Network") is a Turkish press agency based in Beyoğlu, Istanbul. Its focus is on human rights and it is mainly funded by a Swedish organization. It was establish ...
'', November 6, 2009, Retrieved September 10, 2010.


See also

*
List of massacres in Turkey The following is a list of massacres that occurred in Turkey (numbers may be approximate, as estimates vary greatly): Antiquity Middle Ages Ottoman Empire Before 1914 World War I (1914–1918) Post-World War I (1919–1923) Republic ...
* Zilan (tribal confederation)


References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Zilan massacre 1930 in Turkey 1930 in military history Ararat rebellion History of Van Province Massacres committed by Turkey Massacres in Turkish Kurdistan Persecution of Kurds in Turkey Turkish war crimes Massacres of Kurds July 1930 events Massacres in 1930 Turkish Land Forces