Uncia (genus)
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The snow leopard (''Panthera uncia''), also known as the ounce, is a felid in the genus ''
Panthera ''Panthera'' is a genus within the family (biology), family Felidae that was named and described by Lorenz Oken in 1816 who placed all the spotted cats in this group. Reginald Innes Pocock revised the classification of this genus in 1916 as co ...
'' native to the mountain ranges of
Central Central is an adjective usually referring to being in the center of some place or (mathematical) object. Central may also refer to: Directions and generalised locations * Central Africa, a region in the centre of Africa continent, also known as ...
and South Asia. It is listed as
Vulnerable Vulnerable may refer to: General * Vulnerability * Vulnerability (computing) * Vulnerable adult * Vulnerable species Music Albums * ''Vulnerable'' (Marvin Gaye album), 1997 * ''Vulnerable'' (Tricky album), 2003 * ''Vulnerable'' (The Used album) ...
on the IUCN Red List because the global population is estimated to number fewer than 10,000 mature individuals and is expected to decline about 10% by 2040. It is threatened by poaching and habitat destruction following infrastructural developments. It inhabits
alpine Alpine may refer to any mountainous region. It may also refer to: Places Europe * Alps, a European mountain range ** Alpine states, which overlap with the European range Australia * Alpine, New South Wales, a Northern Village * Alpine National Pa ...
and
subalpine zone Montane ecosystems are found on the slopes of mountains. The alpine climate in these regions strongly affects the ecosystem because temperatures fall as elevation increases, causing the ecosystem to stratify. This stratification is a crucial f ...
s at elevations of , ranging from eastern Afghanistan, the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau to southern Siberia, Mongolia and western China. In the northern part of its range, it also lives at lower elevations.
Taxonomically In biology, taxonomy () is the scientific study of naming, defining ( circumscribing) and classifying groups of biological organisms based on shared characteristics. Organisms are grouped into taxa (singular: taxon) and these groups are given ...
, the snow leopard was long classified in the monotypic genus ''Uncia''. Since phylogenetic studies revealed the relationships among ''Panthera'' species, it has been considered a member of that genus. Two subspecies were described based on morphological differences, but genetic differences between the two have not been confirmed. It is therefore regarded as a monotypic species.


Naming and etymology

Both the Latin name ''uncia'' and the English word ''ounce'' are derived from the Old French ''once'', which was also used for the Eurasian lynx (''Lynx lynx''). ''Once'' is thought to have evolved from an earlier variant of ''lynx'' by
false splitting Rebracketing (also known as resegmentation or metanalysis) is a process in historical linguistics where a word originally derived from one set of morphemes is broken down or bracketed into a different set. For example, ''hamburger'', originally ...
; ''lonce'' was interpreted as ''l'once'', in which ''l'' is the elided form of the French definite article ''la'' ('the'), leaving ''once'' to be perceived as the animal's name. The word ''panther'' derives from the classical Latin ''panthēra'', itself from the ancient Greek πάνθηρ ''pánthēr'', which was used for spotted cats.


Taxonomy and evolution

''Felis uncia'' was the
scientific name In taxonomy, binomial nomenclature ("two-term naming system"), also called nomenclature ("two-name naming system") or binary nomenclature, is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, bot ...
used by
Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber (17 January 1739 in Weißensee, Thuringia – 10 December 1810 in Erlangen), often styled J.C.D. von Schreber, was a German naturalist. Career He was appointed professor of'' materia medica'' at the Univers ...
in 1777 who described a snow leopard based on an earlier description by Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, assuming that the cat occurred along the Barbary Coast, in Persia, East India and
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
. The genus name ''Uncia'' was proposed by John Edward Gray in 1854 for Asian cats with a long and thick tail. ''Felis irbis'' proposed by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg in 1830 was a skin of a female snow leopard collected in the
Altai Mountains The Altai Mountains (), also spelled Altay Mountains, are a mountain range in Central Asia, Central and East Asia, where Russia, China, Mongolia and Kazakhstan converge, and where the rivers Irtysh and Ob River, Ob have their headwaters. The m ...
. He also clarified that several
leopard The leopard (''Panthera pardus'') is one of the five extant species in the genus '' Panthera'', a member of the cat family, Felidae. It occurs in a wide range in sub-Saharan Africa, in some parts of Western and Central Asia, Southern Russia, a ...
(''P. pardus'') skins were previously misidentified as snow leopard skins. ''Felis uncioides'' proposed by Thomas Horsfield in 1855 was a snow leopard skin from Nepal in the collection of the Museum of the East India Company. ''Uncia uncia'' was used by
Reginald Innes Pocock Reginald Innes Pocock F.R.S. (4 March 1863 – 9 August 1947) was a British zoologist. Pocock was born in Clifton, Bristol, the fourth son of Rev. Nicholas Pocock and Edith Prichard. He began showing interest in natural history at St. Edward ...
in 1930 when he reviewed skins and skulls of ''Panthera'' species from Asia. He also described morphological differences between snow leopard and leopard skins. ''Panthera baikalensis-romanii'' proposed by a Russian scientist in 2000 was a dark brown snow leopard skin from the Petrovsk-Zabaykalsky District in southern Transbaikal. The snow leopard was long classified in the monotypic genus ''Uncia''. It was subordinated to the genus ''Panthera'' based on results of phylogenetic studies. Until spring 2017, there was no evidence available for the recognition of
subspecies In biological classification, subspecies is a rank below species, used for populations that live in different areas and vary in size, shape, or other physical characteristics (morphology), but that can successfully interbreed. Not all species ...
. Results of a phylogeographic analysis indicate that three subspecies should be recognised: *''P. u. uncia'' in the range countries of the
Pamir Mountains The Pamir Mountains are a mountain range between Central Asia and Pakistan. It is located at a junction with other notable mountains, namely the Tian Shan, Karakoram, Kunlun, Hindu Kush and the Himalaya mountain ranges. They are among the world ...
*''P. u. irbis'' in Mongolia, and *''P. u. uncioides'' in the Himalayas and Qinghai. This view has been both contested and supported by different researchers. Additionally, an extinct subspecies ''
Panthera uncia pyrenaica ''Panthera uncia pyrenaica'', also known as the Arago snow leopard or as the European snow leopard, is a subspecies of snow leopard that lived during the Middle Pleistocene in southern France. It was originally interpreted as a leopard fossil ...
'' was described in 2022 based on material found in France.


Evolution

Based on phylogenetic analysis of
DNA sequence DNA sequencing is the process of determining the nucleic acid sequence – the order of nucleotides in DNA. It includes any method or technology that is used to determine the order of the four bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. Th ...
sampled across the living
Felidae Felidae () is the family of mammals in the order Carnivora colloquially referred to as cats, and constitutes a clade. A member of this family is also called a felid (). The term "cat" refers both to felids in general and specifically to the ...
, the snow leopard forms a
sister group In phylogenetics, a sister group or sister taxon, also called an adelphotaxon, comprises the closest relative(s) of another given unit in an evolutionary tree. Definition The expression is most easily illustrated by a cladogram: Taxon A and t ...
with the tiger (''P. tigris'').
Genetic divergence Genetic divergence is the process in which two or more populations of an ancestral species accumulate independent genetic changes (mutations) through time, often leading to reproductive isolation and continued mutation even after the populations hav ...
time of this group is estimated at . The snow leopard and the tiger probably diverged between . ''Panthera'' originates most likely in northern Central Asia. ''
Panthera blytheae ''Panthera blytheae'' is an extinct species of the genus '' Panthera'' that is thought to have existed during the late Messinian to early Zanclean ages approximately 5.95–4.1 million years ago. It is currently the oldest known ''Panthera'' sp ...
'' excavated in western Tibet's Ngari Prefecture is the oldest known ''Panthera'' species and exhibits skull characteristics similar to the snow leopard. The mitochondrial genomes of the snow leopard, the leopard and the
lion The lion (''Panthera leo'') is a large Felidae, cat of the genus ''Panthera'' native to Africa and India. It has a muscular, broad-chested body; short, rounded head; round ears; and a hairy tuft at the end of its tail. It is sexually dimorphi ...
(''P. leo'') are more similar to each other than their nuclear genomes, indicating that their ancestors hybridised at some point in their evolution.


Characteristics

The snow leopard's fur is whitish to grey with black spots on head and neck, with larger rosettes on the back, flanks and bushy tail. The belly is whitish. Its eyes are pale green or grey in color. Its muzzle is short and its forehead domed. Its nasal cavities are large. The fur is thick with hairs between long. Its body is stocky, short-legged, and slightly smaller than the other cats of the genus ''Panthera'', reaching a shoulder height of , and ranging in head to body size from . Its tail is long. It weighs between , with an occasional large male reaching , and small female of under . Its canine teeth are long and are more slender than those of the other ''Panthera'' species. In relation to the length of its skull and width of its palate, it has large nasal openings, which allow for increasing the volume of air inhaled with each breath, and at the same time for warming and humidifying cold dry air. It is not especially adapted to
high-altitude hypoxia Altitude sickness, the mildest form being acute mountain sickness (AMS), is the harmful effect of high altitude, caused by rapid exposure to low amounts of oxygen at high elevation. People can respond to high altitude in different ways. Sympt ...
. The snow leopard shows several adaptations for living in a cold, mountainous environment. Its small rounded ears help to minimize heat loss. Its broad paws well distribute the body weight for walking on snow, and have fur on their undersides to increase the grip on steep and unstable surfaces; it also helps to minimize heat loss. Its long and flexible tail helps to maintain balance in the rocky terrain. The tail is very thick due to fat storage, and is covered in a thick layer of fur, which allows the cat to use it like a blanket to protect its face when asleep. The snow leopard differs from the other ''Panthera'' species by a shorter muzzle, an elevated
forehead In human anatomy, the forehead is an area of the head bounded by three features, two of the skull and one of the scalp. The top of the forehead is marked by the hairline, the edge of the area where hair on the scalp grows. The bottom of the fore ...
, a vertical chin and a less developed posterior process of the lower jaw. It cannot roar despite its partly ossified
hyoid bone The hyoid bone (lingual bone or tongue-bone) () is a horseshoe-shaped bone situated in the anterior midline of the neck between the chin and the thyroid cartilage. At rest, it lies between the base of the mandible and the third cervical vertebr ...
, as its short vocal folds provide little resistance to airflow.


Distribution and habitat

The snow leopard is distributed from the west of
Lake Baikal Lake Baikal (, russian: Oзеро Байкал, Ozero Baykal ); mn, Байгал нуур, Baigal nuur) is a rift lake in Russia. It is situated in southern Siberia, between the federal subjects of Irkutsk Oblast to the northwest and the Repu ...
through southern Siberia, in the
Kunlun Mountains The Kunlun Mountains ( zh, s=昆仑山, t=崑崙山, p=Kūnlún Shān, ; ug, كۇئېنلۇن تاغ تىزمىسى / قۇرۇم تاغ تىزمىسى ) constitute one of the longest mountain chains in Asia, extending for more than . In the bro ...
, Altai Mountains, Sayan and Tannu-Ola Mountains, in the Tian Shan, through Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan to the Hindu Kush in eastern Afghanistan,
Karakoram The Karakoram is a mountain range in Kashmir region spanning the borders of Pakistan, China, and India, with the northwest extremity of the range extending to Afghanistan and Tajikistan. Most of the Karakoram mountain range falls under the ...
in northern Pakistan, in the
Pamir Mountains The Pamir Mountains are a mountain range between Central Asia and Pakistan. It is located at a junction with other notable mountains, namely the Tian Shan, Karakoram, Kunlun, Hindu Kush and the Himalaya mountain ranges. They are among the world ...
, the Tibetan Plateau and in the high elevations of the Himalayas in India, Nepal and Bhutan. In Mongolia, it inhabits the Mongolian and Gobi Altai Mountains and the
Khangai Mountains The Khangai Mountains ( mn, Хангайн нуруу, Hangain nuruu, ); form a mountain range, range in central Mongolia, some west of Ulaanbaatar. Name Two provinces of Mongolia are named after the Khangai mountains: Arkhangai (North Khangai) ...
. In Tibet, it occurs up to the Altyn-Tagh in the north. It inhabits
alpine Alpine may refer to any mountainous region. It may also refer to: Places Europe * Alps, a European mountain range ** Alpine states, which overlap with the European range Australia * Alpine, New South Wales, a Northern Village * Alpine National Pa ...
and
subalpine zone Montane ecosystems are found on the slopes of mountains. The alpine climate in these regions strongly affects the ecosystem because temperatures fall as elevation increases, causing the ecosystem to stratify. This stratification is a crucial f ...
s at elevations from , but also lives at lower elevations in the northern part of its range. Potential snow leopard habitat in the Indian Himalayas is estimated at less than in
Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir may refer to: * Kashmir, the northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent * Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), a region administered by India as a union territory * Jammu and Kashmir (state), a region administered ...
, Ladakh, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh, of which about is considered good habitat, and 14.4% is protected. In the beginning of the 1990s, the Indian snow leopard population was estimated at 200–600 individuals living across about 25 protected areas. In summer, the snow leopard usually lives above the tree line on
alpine meadow Alpine tundra is a type of natural region or biome that does not contain trees because it is at high elevation, with an associated harsh climate. As the latitude of a location approaches the poles, the threshold elevation for alpine tundra gets ...
s and in rocky regions at elevations from . In winter, it descends to elevations around . It prefers rocky, broken terrain, and can move in deep snow, but prefers to use existing trails made by other animals. Snow leopards were recorded by camera traps at 16 locations in northeastern Afghanistan's isolated Wakhan Corridor.


Behavior and ecology

The snow leopard's vocalizations include meowing, grunting,
prusten Prusten is a form of communicative behaviour exhibited by some members of the family Felidae. Prusten is also referred to as chuffing or chuffle (verb and noun). It is described as a short, low Sound intensity, intensity, non-threatening Animal com ...
and moaning. It can purr when exhaling. It is solitary and active mostly at dawn until early morning, and again in afternoons and early evenings. It mostly rests near cliffs and ridges that provide vantage points and shade. In Nepal's
Shey Phoksundo National Park Shey Phoksundo National Park is the largest and only trans- Himalayan national park in Nepal. It was established in 1984 and covers an area of in the districts of Dolpa and Mugu in the Mid-Western Region, Nepal. The protected area ranges in el ...
, the home ranges of five adult radio-collared snow leopards overlapped largely, though they rarely met. Their individual home ranges ranged in size from . Males moved between per day, and females between , measured in straight lines between survey points. Since they often zigzagged in the precipitous terrain, they actually moved up to in a single night. Up to 10 individuals inhabit an area of ; in habitats with sparse prey, an area of supports only five individuals. A study in the
Gobi Desert The Gobi Desert (Chinese: 戈壁 (沙漠), Mongolian: Говь (ᠭᠣᠪᠢ)) () is a large desert or brushland region in East Asia, and is the sixth largest desert in the world. Geography The Gobi measures from southwest to northeast an ...
lasting from 2008 to 2014 revealed that adult male snow leopards used a mean home range of , while adult females ranged in areas of . Their home ranges overlapped less than 20%. These results indicate that about 40% of the 170 protected areas in snow leopard range countries are smaller than the home range of a single male snow leopard. Snow leopards leave
scent mark In ethology, territory is the sociographical area that an animal consistently defends against conspecific competition (or, occasionally, against animals of other species) using agonistic behaviors or (less commonly) real physical aggression. A ...
s to indicate their territories and common travel routes. They scrape the ground with the hind feet before depositing urine or
feces Feces ( or faeces), known colloquially and in slang as poo and poop, are the solid or semi-solid remains of food that was not digested in the small intestine, and has been broken down by bacteria in the large intestine. Feces contain a relati ...
, but also
spray Spray or spraying commonly refer to: * Spray (liquid drop) ** Aerosol spray ** Blood spray ** Hair spray ** Nasal spray ** Pepper spray ** PAVA spray ** Road spray or tire spray, road debris kicked up from a vehicle tire ** Sea spray, refers to ...
urine onto rocks. Their urine contains many characteristic low molecular weight compounds with diverse functional groups including
pentanol An amyl alcohol is any of eight alcohols with the formula C5H12O. A mixture of amyl alcohols (also called amyl alcohol) can be obtained from fusel alcohol. Amyl alcohol is used as a solvent and in esterification, by which is produced amyl acetate a ...
, hexanol,
heptanol Heptanol may refer to any of four isomeric chemical compounds: * 1-Heptanol, an alcohol with a seven carbon chain and the structural formula of CH3(CH2)6OH * 2-Heptanol, a secondary alcohol with the hydroxyl on the second carbon of the straight sev ...
, 3-octanone, nonanal and indole, which possibly play a role in chemical communication.


Hunting and diet

In Hemis National Park, a snow leopard was observed while approaching prey from above, using rocky cliffs for cover; at a distance of about from the prey, it walked rapidly for about , ran the last and killed the prey with a neck bite. While squatting on its haunches, it ripped out clumps of hair from the abdomen and then opened it to first feed on the viscera. The snow leopard is a carnivore and actively
hunts Hunt's is the name of a brand of preserved tomato products owned by Conagra Brands. The company was founded in 1888, in Sebastopol, California, as the Hunt Bros. Fruit Packing Co., by Joseph and William Hunt. The brothers relocated to nearby San ...
its prey. Its preferred wild prey species are
Himalayan blue sheep The bharal (''Pseudois nayaur''), also called the blue sheep, is a caprine native to the high Himalayas. It is the only member of the genus ''Pseudois.'' It occurs in India, Bhutan, China (in Gansu, Ningxia, Sichuan, Tibet, and Inner Mongolia ...
(''Pseudois nayaur''), Himalayan tahr (''Hemitragus jemlahicus''), argali (''Ovis ammon''), markhor (''Capra falconeri'') and wild goat (''C. aegagrus''). It also preys on domestic livestock. It prefers prey ranging in weight from , but also hunts smaller mammals such as
Himalayan marmot The Himalayan marmot (''Marmota himalayana'') is a marmot species that inhabits alpine grasslands throughout the Himalayas and on the Tibetan Plateau. It is IUCN Red Listed as Least Concern because of its wide range and possibly large population. ...
(''Marmota himalayana''), pika and vole species. Its diet depends on prey availability and varies across its range and season. In the Himalayas, it preys mostly on Himalayan blue sheep, Siberian ibex (''C. sibirica''), white-bellied musk deer (''Moschus leucogaster'') and wild boar (''Sus scrofa''). In the
Karakoram The Karakoram is a mountain range in Kashmir region spanning the borders of Pakistan, China, and India, with the northwest extremity of the range extending to Afghanistan and Tajikistan. Most of the Karakoram mountain range falls under the ...
, Tian Shan, Altai and Mongolia's Tost Mountains, its main prey consists of Siberian ibex,
Thorold's deer Thorold's deer (''Cervus albirostris'')Pitraa, Fickela, Meijaard, Groves (2004). ''Evolution and phylogeny of old world deer.'' Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 33: 880–895. is a threatened species of deer found in grassland, shrubland, an ...
(''Cervus albirostris''), Siberian roe deer (''Capreolus pygargus'') and argali. Snow leopard feces collected in northern Pakistan also contained remains of rhesus macaque (''Macaca mulatta''), masked palm civet (''Paguma larvata''), Cape hare (''Lepus capensis''),
house mouse The house mouse (''Mus musculus'') is a small mammal of the order Rodentia, characteristically having a pointed snout, large rounded ears, and a long and almost hairless tail. It is one of the most abundant species of the genus '' Mus''. Althoug ...
(''Mus musculus''),
Kashmir field mouse The Kashmir field mouse (''Apodemus rusiges'') is a species of rodent in the family Muridae. It is found in India, Nepal, and Pakistan Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in ...
(''Apodemus rusiges''), grey dwarf hamster (''Cricetulus migratorius'') and
Turkestan rat The Turkestan rat (''Rattus pyctoris'') is a species of rodent in the family Muridae The Muridae, or murids, are the largest family of rodents and of mammals, containing approximately 1,383 species, including many species of mice, rats, and g ...
(''Rattus pyctoris''). In 2017, a snow leopard was photographed carrying a freshly killed
woolly flying squirrel ''Eupetaurus'' is a genus of rodent in the family Sciuridae. Members of this genus are known as woolly flying squirrels. They are large to very large flying squirrels found in the highest rocky cliffs near the treeline of the Himalayas and Tibet ...
(''Eupetaurus cinereus'') near Gangotri National Park. In Mongolia, domestic sheep comprises less than 20% of snow leopard diet, although wild prey has been reduced and interactions with people are common. Snow leopards actively pursue prey down steep mountainsides, using the momentum of their initial leap to chase animals for up to . They drag the prey to a safe location and consume all edible parts of the carcass. They can survive on a single Himalayan blue sheep for two weeks before hunting again, and one adult individual apparently needs 20–30 adult blue sheep per year. Snow leopards have been recorded to hunt successfully in pairs, especially mating pairs. The snow leopard is capable of killing most animals in its range, with the probable exception of the adult male
yak The domestic yak (''Bos grunniens''), also known as the Tartary ox, grunting ox or hairy cattle, is a species of long-haired domesticated cattle found throughout the Himalayan region of the Indian subcontinent, the Tibetan Plateau, Kachin Sta ...
. It also eats a significant amount of vegetation, including grass and twigs. It has not been reported to attack humans, is easily driven away from livestock and readily abandons kills, often without defending itself.


Reproduction and life cycle

Snow leopards become sexually mature at two to three years, and normally live for 15–18 years in the wild. In captivity they can live for up to 25 years. Oestrus typically lasts from five to eight days, and males tend not to seek out another partner after mating, probably because the short mating season does not allow sufficient time. Paired snow leopards mate in the usual felid posture, from 12 to 36 times a day. They are unusual among large cats in that they have a well-defined birth peak. They usually
mate Mate may refer to: Science * Mate, one of a pair of animals involved in: ** Mate choice, intersexual selection ** Mating * Multi-antimicrobial extrusion protein, or MATE, an efflux transporter family of proteins Person or title * Friendship ...
in late winter, marked by a noticeable increase in marking and calling. Females have a
gestation period In mammals, pregnancy is the period of reproduction during which a female carries one or more live offspring from implantation in the uterus through gestation. It begins when a fertilized zygote implants in the female's uterus, and ends once it ...
of 90–100 days, and the cubs are born between April and June. A litter usually consists of two to three cubs, in exceptional cases there can be up to seven. The female gives birth in a rocky den or crevice lined with fur shed from her underside. The cubs are blind and helpless at birth, although already with a thick coat of fur, and weigh from . Their eyes open at around seven days, and the cubs can walk at five weeks and are fully weaned by 10 weeks. The cubs leave the den when they are around two to four months of age. Three radio-collared snow leopards in Mongolia's Tost Mountains gave birth between late April and late June. Two female cubs started to part from their mothers at the age of 20 to 21 months, but reunited with them several times for a few days over a period of 4–7 months. One male cub separated from its mother at the age of about 22 months, but stayed in her vicinity for a month and moved out of his natal range at 23 months of age. The snow leopard has a generation length of eight years.


Threats

The major threat to snow leopard populations is poaching and illegal trade of skins and body parts. Between 1999 and 2002, three live snow leopard cubs and 16 skins were
confiscated Confiscation (from the Latin ''confiscatio'' "to consign to the ''fiscus'', i.e. transfer to the treasury") is a legal form of seizure by a government or other public authority. The word is also used, popularly, of spoliation under legal forms, o ...
, 330
traps TNF receptor associated periodic syndrome (TRAPSsubscription needed) is a periodic fever syndrome associated with mutations in a receptor (biochemistry), receptor for the molecule tumor necrosis factors, tumor necrosis factor (TNF) that is inheri ...
were destroyed and 110 poachers were arrested in Kyrgyzstan. Undercover operations in the country revealed an illegal trade network with links to Russia and China via Kazakhstan. The major skin trade center in the region is the city of
Kashgar Kashgar ( ug, قەشقەر, Qeshqer) or Kashi ( zh, c=喀什) is an oasis city in the Tarim Basin region of Southern Xinjiang. It is one of the westernmost cities of China, near the border with Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Pakistan ...
in Xinjiang. In Tibet and Mongolia, skins are used for traditional dresses, and meat in traditional Tibetan medicine to cure kidney problems; bones are used in traditional Chinese and Mongolian medicine for treating
rheumatism Rheumatism or rheumatic disorders are conditions causing chronic, often intermittent pain affecting the joints or connective tissue. Rheumatism does not designate any specific disorder, but covers at least 200 different conditions, including art ...
, injuries and pain of human bones and tendons. Between 1996 and 2002, 37 skins were found in wildlife markets and tourist shops in Mongolia. Between 2003 and 2016, 710 skins were traded, of which 288 skins were confiscated. In China, 103 to 236 animals are poached every year, in Mongolia between 34 and 53, in Pakistan between 23 and 53, in India from 21 to 45, and in Tajikistan 20 to 25. In 2016, a survey of Chinese websites revealed 15 advertisements for 44 snow leopard products; the dealers offered skins, canine teeth, claws and a tongue. Nine snow leopard skins were found during a market survey in September 2014 in Afghanistan.
Greenhouse gas A greenhouse gas (GHG or GhG) is a gas that Absorption (electromagnetic radiation), absorbs and Emission (electromagnetic radiation), emits radiant energy within the thermal infrared range, causing the greenhouse effect. The primary greenhouse ...
emissions will likely cause a shift of the treeline in the Himalayas and a shrinking of the alpine zone, which may reduce snow leopard habitat by 30%. Where snow leopards prey on domestic livestock, they are subject to conflict with humans. The loss of natural prey due to overgrazing by livestock, poaching, and defense of livestock are the major drivers for the decreasing population of the snow leopard. Livestock also cause habitat degradation, which, alongside the increasing use of forests for fuel, reduces snow leopard habitat.


Conservation

The snow leopard is listed in CITES Appendix I. It has been listed as threatened with extinction in Schedule I of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals since 1985. Hunting snow leopards has been prohibited in Kyrgyzstan since the 1950s. In India, the snow leopard is granted the highest level of protection under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, and hunting is sentenced with
imprisonment Imprisonment is the restraint of a person's liberty, for any cause whatsoever, whether by authority of the government, or by a person acting without such authority. In the latter case it is "false imprisonment". Imprisonment does not necessari ...
of 3–7 years. In Nepal, it has been legally protected since 1973, with penalties of 5–15 years in prison and a
fine Fine may refer to: Characters * Sylvia Fine (''The Nanny''), Fran's mother on ''The Nanny'' * Officer Fine, a character in ''Tales from the Crypt'', played by Vincent Spano Legal terms * Fine (penalty), money to be paid as punishment for an offe ...
for poaching and trading it. Since 1978, it has been listed in the Soviet Union’s Red Book and is still inscribed today in the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation as threatened with extinction. Hunting snow leopards is only permitted for the purposes of conservation and monitoring, and to eliminate a threat to the life of humans and livestock.
Smuggling Smuggling is the illegal transportation of objects, substances, information or people, such as out of a house or buildings, into a prison, or across an international border, in violation of applicable laws or other regulations. There are various ...
of snow leopard body parts is punished with imprisonment and a
fine Fine may refer to: Characters * Sylvia Fine (''The Nanny''), Fran's mother on ''The Nanny'' * Officer Fine, a character in ''Tales from the Crypt'', played by Vincent Spano Legal terms * Fine (penalty), money to be paid as punishment for an offe ...
. Hunting snow leopards has been prohibited in Afghanistan since 1986. In China, it has been protected by law since 1989; hunting and trading snow leopards or their body parts constitute a
criminal In ordinary language, a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority. The term ''crime'' does not, in modern criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted definition,Farmer, Lindsay: "Crime, definitions of", in Can ...
offence that is punishable by the confiscation of property, a fine and a sentence of at least 10 years in prison. It has been protected in Bhutan since 1995. At the end of 2020, 35 cameras were installed on the outskirts of Almaty, Kazakhstan in hopes to catch footage of snow leopards. In November 2021, it was announced by the Russian World Wildlife Fund (WWF) that snow leopards were spotted 65 times on these cameras in the Trans-Ili Alatau mountains since the cameras were installed. Snow leopards inhabit the following
protected area Protected areas or conservation areas are locations which receive protection because of their recognized natural, ecological or cultural values. There are several kinds of protected areas, which vary by level of protection depending on the ena ...
s: * in Kazakhstan:
Aksu-Zhabagly Nature Reserve The Aksu-Zhabagly Nature Reserve ( kz, Ақсу-Жабағылы қорығы, ''Aqsu-Jabağyly Qoryğy''; russian: Aксу-Жабаглинский заповедник, ''Aksu-Zhabaglinskiy zapovednik'') is the oldest nature reserve in Centra ...
* in Russia: Katun Nature Reserve,
Sayano-Shushenski Nature Reserve Sayano-Shushenski Nature Reserve (russian: Саяно-Шушенский заповедник) (also Sayano-Shushensky) is a Russian 'zapovednik' (strict ecological reserve) reserve in a remote area of the West Sayan Mountains of south Siberia. It ...
* in Kyrgyzstan:
Sarychat-Ertash State Nature Reserve The Sarychat-Eertash Nature Reserve ( ky, Сарычат-Ээрташ мамлекеттик коругу, russian: Сарычат-Эрташский государственный заповедник) is located in Issyk-Kul Region of Kyrgyzsta ...
, Sary-Chelek Nature Reserve,
Besh-Tash State Nature National Park Besh-Tash Nature Park ( ky, Беш-Таш мамлекеттик жаратылыш паркы, russian: Государственный природный парк Беш-Таш) is a nature park in Talas Region, Kyrgyzstan. It is located 13 k ...
,
Kyrgyz-Ata National Park Kyrgyz-Ata ( ky, Кыргыз-Ата) is a village in Osh Region of Kyrgyzstan. It is part of the Nookat District Nookat ( ky, Ноокат району, also: ''Naukat'') is a district of Osh Region in south-western Kyrgyzstan. Its area is , and ...
,
Karakol National Park Karakol ( ky, Каракол, Karakol, قاراقول, ; zh, 卡拉科尔), formerly Przhevalsk (russian: Пржевальск), is the fourth-largest city in Kyrgyzstan, near the eastern tip of Lake Issyk-Kul, about from the Kyrgyzstan–C ...
,
Chychkan Wildlife Refuge Chychkan Game Reserve ( ky, Чычкан зоологиялык (аң уулоочу) заказниги) is a protected area in Toktogul District, Jalal-Abad Region, Kyrgyzstan Kyrgyzstan,, pronounced or the Kyrgyz Republic, is a landloc ...
; * in Uzbekistan:
Chatkalskiy State Nature Reserve Chatkalskiy State Nature Reserve is a reserve in the Tashkent Province of Uzbekistan comprising about 570 square kilometres of mountain steppes, mountain forests, alpine meadows, river valleys and floodplain forests. The state nature preserve w ...
,
Zaamin National Park Zaamin National Park (Jizzakh Region) is the oldest nature reserve in Uzbekistan. It was created in 1926 as the Guralash Nature Preserve, and is located on the northern side of the Turkestan Range. The Zaamin National Park is frequently referred to ...
, Ugam-Chatkal National Park,
Hissar National Reserve Hissar ( ar, حصار, link=no) means fort or castle in Arabic, with variants adopted into Persian (hesar, hessar) and Turkish (hisar). Hissar, Hisar and Hesar may refer to: Places Asia (South and Central) India *Hisar (city), a city in Haryana ...
; * in Tajikistan:
Pamir National Park Tajik National Park ( tg, Боғи миллии Тоҷикистон; russian: Таджикский национальный парк) is a national park and nature reserve in eastern Tajikistan. It was established in 1992 and expanded in 2001 to ...
* in Mongolia:
Altai Tavan Bogd National Park Altai Tavan Bogd National Park (, ''Altai five saints nature complex'') is a national park in Bayan-Ölgii Province of western Mongolia. The park includes the Mongolian side of the Tavan Bogd massif, which is divided by the triple border with Rus ...
,
Tsambagarav Uul National Park Tsambagarav National Park (also: Cambagarav Mountain) is a national park in Bayan-Ölgii Province of western Mongolia. It covers more than in a glacial region which includes Tsambagarav mountain of Mongolia. It has a notable population of snow ...
, Har Us Nuur National Park and
Gobi Gurvansaikhan National Park Gobi Gurvansaikhan National Park (, ''Gobi three beauties nature complex'') is a national park in southern Mongolia. The park was established in 1993, and expanded to its current size in 2000. The park, at nearly 27,000 square kilometers, is the ...
* in China: Chang Tang Nature Reserve,
Qomolangma National Nature Preserve The Qomolangma National Nature Preserve (QNNP), also known as the Chomolungma Nature Reserve (QNP), is a protected area 3.381 million hectares in size in the Tibet Autonomous Region of the People’s Republic of China. Located on the Roof of the ...
and
Sanjiangyuan The Sanjiangyuan (), is an area of the Tibetan Plateau in Qinghai province, China which contains the headwaters of three great rivers of Asia: the Yellow, the Yangtze, and the Mekong. Parts of the area were protected as the Sanjiangyuan National ...
National Nature Reserve on the Tibetan Plateau, Tomur National Conservation Zone in the western
Tianshan Mountains The Tian Shan,, , otk, 𐰴𐰣 𐱅𐰭𐰼𐰃, , tr, Tanrı Dağı, mn, Тэнгэр уул, , ug, تەڭرىتاغ, , , kk, Тәңіртауы / Алатау, , , ky, Теңир-Тоо / Ала-Тоо, , , uz, Tyan-Shan / Tangritog‘ ...
, Qilianshan National Nature Reserve in the Qilian Mountains, * in Pakistan:
Chitral National Park Chitral Gol National Park ( ur, ) is one of the National Parks of Pakistan. It is located in Chitral District in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan beside the Chitral River, at a distance of two hours drive from Chitral town. The park is ...
in the
Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (; ps, خېبر پښتونخوا; Urdu, Hindko: خیبر پختونخوا) commonly abbreviated as KP or KPK, is one of the four provinces of Pakistan. Located in the northwestern region of the country, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa ...
region,
Central Karakoram National Park Central Karakoram National Park ( ur, ) is a national park located in Skardu district of Gilgit-Baltistan in Pakistan. It encompasses some of the world’s highest peaks and largest glaciers. Internationally renowned for mountaineering, rock ...
and Khunjerab National Park in
Gilgit-Baltistan Gilgit-Baltistan (; ), formerly known as the Northern Areas, is a region administered by Pakistan as an administrative territory, and constituting the northern portion of the larger Kashmir region which has been the subject of a dispute bet ...
, Deosai National Park, Naltar Wildlife Sanctuary, Baltistan Wildlife Sanctuary and several protected areas that are smaller than ; * in India: Hemis National Park,
Kishtwar National Park Kishtwar National Park is a national park located, just 40 km from Kishtwar town in the Kishtwar district of Jammu and Kashmir, India. It is bounded to the north by Rinnay river, south by Kibar Nala catchment, east by main divide of Great Him ...
,
Dachigam National Park Dachigam National Park is a national park located, from Srinagar city in Srinagar district of Jammu and Kashmir, India on the east side of Dal Lake. It covers an area of 161, 62.16(updated recently) by hgtian student SIJ. The name of the park ...
, Gulmarg Wildlife Sanctuary, Hirpora Wildlife Sanctuary, Rangdum Wildlife Reserve, Overa-Aru, Kanji, Gya-Miru and Baltal-Thajwas Wildlife Sanctuaries in Ladakh,
Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir may refer to: * Kashmir, the northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent * Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), a region administered by India as a union territory * Jammu and Kashmir (state), a region administered ...
;
Pin Valley National Park Pin Valley National Park is a National park of India located in the Spiti Valley in the Lahaul and Spiti district, in the state of Himachal Pradesh. It is located in far northern India. It is part of Cold Desert (biosphere reserve). History S ...
,
Great Himalayan National Park The Great Himalayan National Park (GHNP) is a national park in India, located in Kullu region in the state of Himachal Pradesh. The park was established in 1984 and is spread over an area of 1171 km2; elevations within the park range betwee ...
, Rupi-Bhaba Wildlife Sanctuary, Sechu Tuan Nala Wildlife Sanctuary and Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary in Himachal Pradesh; Nanda Devi National Park, Gangotri National Park and
Valley of Flowers A valley is an elongated low area often running between hills or mountains, which will typically contain a river or stream running from one end to the other. Most valleys are formed by erosion of the land surface by rivers or streams over ...
National Park in Uttarakhand; Khangchendzonga National Park and Dibang Wildlife Sanctuary in the Eastern Himalayas; * in Nepal:
Api Nampa Conservation Area The Api-Nampa Conservation Area is a protected area in the Far-Western Development Region, Nepal. It was established in 2010 and covers encompassing 21 Village Development Committees in the Darchula District. The western boundary is formed by the ...
,
Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve is the only hunting reserve in Nepal. Established in 1987 it covers an area of in the Dhaulagiri Himal of western Nepal in the Eastern Rukum, Myagdi and Baglung Districts. In elevation, it ranges from . Flora and faun ...
, Shey Phoksundo National Park, Annapurna Conservation Area, Manaslu Conservation Area, Langtang National Park, Sagarmatha National Park,
Makalu Barun National Park Makalu Barun National Park is a national park in the Himalayas of Nepal that was established in 1992 as eastern extension of Sagarmatha National Park. It is the world's only protected area with an elevation gain of more than enclosing tropical fo ...
and
Kanchenjunga Conservation Area Kanchenjunga Conservation Area is a protected area in the Himalayas of eastern Nepal that was established in 1997. It covers in the Taplejung District and comprises two peaks of Kanchenjunga. In the north it adjoins the Qomolangma National Natur ...
; * in Bhutan:
Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary The Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary (also spelled Bumdelling or Bomdeling), which contains the former Kulong Chu Wildlife Sanctuary, covers in northeastern Bhutan at elevations between and . The sanctuary covers most of Trashiyangtse District ...
,
Jigme Dorji National Park The Jigme Dorji National Park (JDNP), named after the late Jigme Dorji Wangchuck, is the second-largest National Park of Bhutan. It occupies almost the entire Gasa District, as well as the northern areas of Thimphu District, Paro District, Puna ...
and Wangchuck Centennial National Park.


Global Snow Leopard Forum

In 2013, government leaders and officials from all 12 countries encompassing the snow leopard's range (Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan) came together at the Global Snow Leopard Forum (GSLF) initiated by the then-President of Kyrgyzstan Almazbek Atambayev, and the State Agency on Environmental Protection and Forestry under the government of Kyrgyzstan. The meeting was held in
Bishkek Bishkek ( ky, Бишкек), ), formerly Pishpek and Frunze, is the capital and largest city of Kyrgyzstan. Bishkek is also the administrative centre of the Chüy Region. The region surrounds the city, although the city itself is not part of ...
, and all countries agreed that the snow leopard and the high mountain habitat need trans-boundary support to ensure a viable future for snow leopard populations, and to safeguard its fragile environment. The event brought together many partners, including NGOs like the
Snow Leopard Conservancy The Snow Leopard Conservancy (SLC) was founded in 2000 by Dr Rodney Jackson, a leading expert on snow leopards (''Panthera uncia'') and their habitat. The conservancy works to engage and incorporate local communities in protecting snow leopards ...
, the Snow Leopard Trust, and the
Nature and Biodiversity Conservation Union The Naturschutzbund Deutschland e.V. ("Nature and Biodiversity Conservation Union") or NABU is a German non-governmental organisation (NGO) dedicated to Conservation movement, conservation at home and abroad, including the protection of river ...
. Also supporting the initiative were the Snow Leopard Network, the World Bank's Global Tiger Initiative, the United Nations Development Programme, the
World Wild Fund for Nature The World Wide Fund for Nature Inc. (WWF) is an international non-governmental organization founded in 1961 that works in the field of wilderness preservation and the reduction of human impact on the environment. It was formerly named the Wor ...
, the United States Agency for International Development, and Global Environment Facility. At the GSLF meeting, the 12 range countries signed the Bishkek Declaration, which stated: " eacknowledge that the snow leopard is an irreplaceable symbol of our nations' natural and cultural heritage and an indicator of the health and sustainability of mountain ecosystems; and we recognize that mountain ecosystems inhabited by snow leopards provide essential ecosystem services, including storing and releasing water from the origins of river systems benefitting one-third of the world’s human population; sustaining the pastoral and agricultural livelihoods of local communities which depend on biodiversity for food, fuel, fodder, and medicine; and offering inspiration, recreation, and economic opportunities."


In captivity

The
Moscow Zoo The Moscow Zoo or Moskovsky Zoopark (russian: Московский зоопарк) is a zoo founded in 1864 by professor-biologists, K.F. Rulje, S.A. Usov and A.P. Bogdanov, from the Moscow State University. In 1919, the zoo was nationalized. In ...
exhibited the first captive snow leopard in 1872 that had been caught in Turkestan. In Kyrgyzstan, 420 live snow leopards were caught between 1936 and 1988 and exported to zoos around the world. The first captive bred snow leopard cubs were born in the 1990s in the Beijing Zoo. The Snow Leopard Species Survival Plan was initiated in 1984; by 1986, American zoos held 234 individuals.


Cultural significance

The snow leopard is widely used in
heraldry Heraldry is a discipline relating to the design, display and study of armorial bearings (known as armory), as well as related disciplines, such as vexillology, together with the study of ceremony, rank and pedigree. Armory, the best-known branch ...
and as an emblem in Central Asia. It has long been used as a political symbol, the '' Aq Bars'' ('White Leopard'), by Tatars,
Kazakhs The Kazakhs (also spelled Qazaqs; Kazakh: , , , , , ; the English name is transliterated from Russian; russian: казахи) are a Turkic-speaking ethnic group native to northern parts of Central Asia, chiefly Kazakhstan, but also parts o ...
, and
Bulgars The Bulgars (also Bulghars, Bulgari, Bolgars, Bolghars, Bolgari, Proto-Bulgarians) were Turkic semi-nomadic warrior tribes that flourished in the Pontic–Caspian steppe and the Volga region during the 7th century. They became known as nomad ...
. A snow leopard is depicted on the official seal of
Almaty Almaty (; kk, Алматы; ), formerly known as Alma-Ata ( kk, Алма-Ата), is the List of most populous cities in Kazakhstan, largest city in Kazakhstan, with a population of about 2 million. It was the capital of Kazakhstan from 1929 to ...
and on the former 10,000
Kazakhstani tenge The tenge ( or ; kk, теңге, teñge, ; sign: ₸ ; code: KZT) is the currency of Kazakhstan. It is divided into 100 tiyn ( kk, тиын, tıyın also transliterated as ''tiyin''). History After the breakup of the Soviet Union in December ...
banknote. A mythical winged ''Aq Bars'' is depicted on the national coat of arms of Tatarstan, the seal of the city of Samarqand, Uzbekistan and the old coat of arms of Nur-Sultan. In Kyrgyzstan, it has been used in highly stylized form in the modern emblem of the capital
Bishkek Bishkek ( ky, Бишкек), ), formerly Pishpek and Frunze, is the capital and largest city of Kyrgyzstan. Bishkek is also the administrative centre of the Chüy Region. The region surrounds the city, although the city itself is not part of ...
, and the same art has been integrated into the badge of the Kyrgyzstan Girl Scouts Association. A crowned snow leopard features in the arms of
Shushensky District Shushensky District (russian: Шу́шенский райо́н) is an administrativeLaw #10-4765 and municipalLaw #13-2866 district (raion), one of the forty-three in Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia. It is located in the south of the krai and borders wi ...
in Russia. It is the
state animal This is a list of animals that represent List of first-level administrative country subdivisions, first-level administrative country subdivisions. List by country Australia Brazil * See also List of Brazilian state birds Canada People's ...
of Ladakh and Himachal Pradesh in India.


See also

*
List of largest cats This list of largest cats shows the 10 largest extant Felidae species, ordered by maximum reported weight and size of wild individuals on record. The list does not contain cat hybrids, such as the liger or tigon A tigon (), tiglon () (portman ...


References


Further reading

* *


External links

* * * * {{Authority control Apex predators Big cats Mammals of East Asia Fauna of the Himalayas Fauna of Siberia Felids of Asia Felids of India IUCN Red List vulnerable species Snow leopard Mammals of Central Asia Mammals of South Asia National symbols of Pakistan Snow leopard Symbols of Himachal Pradesh Vulnerable animals Vulnerable biota of Asia National symbols of Afghanistan