The Languages of Africa

''The Languages of Africa'' is a 1963 book of essays by the linguist Joseph Greenberg, in which the author sets forth a genetic classification of African languages that, with some changes, continues to be the most commonly used one today. It is an expanded and extensively revised version of his 1955 work ''Studies in African Linguistic Classification'', which was itself a compilation of eight articles which Greenberg had published in the ''Southwestern Journal of Anthropology'' between 1949 and 1954. It was first published in 1963 as Part II of the ''International Journal of American Linguistics'', Vol. 29, No. 1; however, its second edition of 1966, in which it was published (by Indiana University, Bloomington: Mouton & Co., The Hague) as an independent work, is more commonly cited.

Its author describes it as based on three fundamentals of method:
* "The sole relevance in comparison of resemblances involving both sound and meaning in specific forms."
* "Mass comparison as against isolated comparisons between pairs of languages."
* "Only linguistic evidence is relevant in drawing conclusions about classification."

Innovations

Greenberg's Niger–Congo family was substantially foreshadowed by Westermann's "Western Sudanic", but he changed the subclassification, including Fulani (as West Atlantic) and the newly postulated Adamawa–Eastern, excluding Songhai, and classifying Bantu as merely a subfamily of Benue–Congo (previously termed "Semi-Bantu").

Semitic, Berber, Egyptian and Cushitic had been generally accepted as members of a "Hamito-Semitic" family, while Chadic, Fulani, " Nilo-Hamitic" and Hottentot had all been controversially proposed as members. He accepted Chadic (while changing its membership), and rejected the other three, establishing to most linguists' satisfaction that they had been classified as "Hamitic" for purely typological reasons. This demonstration also led to the rejection (by him and by linguistics as a whole) of the term Hamitic as having no coherent meaning in historical linguistics; as a result, he renamed the newly reclassified family "Afroasiatic".

Following Schapera and rejecting Meinhof, he classified Hottentot as a member of the Central Khoisan languages. To Khoisan he also added the much more northerly Hadza (Hatsa) and Sandawe.

His most revolutionary step was the postulation of the Nilo-Saharan family. This is still controversial, because so far attempts to reconstruct this family have been unsuccessful, but it holds promise and is it widely used. Prior linguists had noticed an apparent relationship between the majority of the languages, but had never formally proposed a family. These languages – the Eastern Sudanic, Central Sudanic, Kunama and Berta branches – Greenberg placed into a core group he called Chari–Nile, to which he added all the remaining unclassified languages of Africa that did not have noun classes. The distinction between Chari–Nile and the peripheral branches has since been abandoned. On a lower level, he placed "Nilo-Hamitic" firmly within Nilotic, following a suggestion of Köhler, and placed Eastern Sudanic on a firmer foundation.

Finally, he assigned the unclassified languages of the Nuba Hills of Kordofan to the Niger–Congo family, calling the result ''Congo–Kordofanian''. The relationship has been accepted, with the exception of the " Tumtum" group, though the Kordofanian languages are no longer seen as being a primary branch, and the name 'Congo–Kordofanian' is no longer used.

Greenberg's four families became the dominant conception of African languages, though his subclassification did not fare as well. Niger−Congo and Afroasiatic are nearly universally accepted, with no significant support for Hamitic or the independence of Bantu. Nilo-Saharan is still considered provisional. Khoisan is now rejected by specialists, except as a term of convenience, though it may be retained in less specialized literature.

Classification

The book classifies Africa's languages into four stocks not presumed to be related to each other, as follows:

I. Congo–Kordofanian

:I.A Niger–Congo
:I.A.1 West Atlantic
: I.A.1.a Northern: Wolof, Serer-Sin, Fulani, Serer-Non, Konyagi, Basari, Biafada, Badyara ( Pajade), Dyola, Mandyak, Balante, Banyun, Nalu, Cobiana, Cassanga, Bidyogo
: I.A.1.b Southern: Temne, Baga, Landoma, Kissi, Bulom, Limba, Gola
:I.A.2 Mande
: I.A.2.a Western
: I.A.2.a.1 Malinke, Bambara, Dyula, Mandinka, Numu, Ligbi, Huela, Vai, Kono, Koranko, Khasonke Bobo
: I.A.2.a.3 Mende, Loko, Gbandi, Loma, Kpelle ( Guerze)
: I.A.2.a.4 Susu, Dyalonke
: I.A.2.a.5 Soninke, Bozo
: I.A.2.a.6 Duun, Dzuun, Jo, Seenku ( Sembla), Kpan, Banka
: I.A.2.b Eastern
: I.A.2.b.1 Mano, Dan ( Gio), Guro ( Kweni), Mwa, Nwa, Beng, Gban, Tura (Wen), Yaure
: I.A.2.b.2 Samo, Bisa, Busa, Kyenga, Shanga
:I.A.3 Voltaic
: I.A.3.a Senoufo: Minianka, Tagba, Foro, Tagwana ( Takponin), Dyimini, Nafana
: I.A.3.b. Lobi-Dogon: Lobi, Dyan, Puguli, Gan, Gouin, Turuka, Doghosie, Doghosie-Fing, Kyan, Tara, Bwamu, Wara, Natioro, Dogon, Kulango
: I.A.3.c Grusi: Awuna, Kasena, Nunuma, Lyele, Tamprusi, Kanjaga (Bulea) (moved to group d), Degha, Siti, Kurumba ( Fulse), Sisala
: I.A.3.d Mossi, Dagomba, Kusasi, Nankanse, Talensi, Mamprusi, Wala, Dagari, Birifo, Namnam, Kanjaga ( Bulea) (moved from group c)
: I.A.3.e Tem, Kabre, Delo, Chala
: I.A.3.f Bargu ( Bariba)
: I.A.3.g Gurma, Tobote ( Basari), Kasele (Chamba), Moba
: I.A.3.x Dogon
:I.A.4 Kwa
: I.A.4.a Kru: Bete, Bakwe, Grebo, Bassa, De, Kru ( Krawi)
: I.A.4.b Avatime, Nyangbo, Tafi, Logba, Likpe, Ahlo, Akposo, Lefana, Bowili, Akpafu, Santrokofi, Adele, Kebu, Anyimere, Ewe, Aladian, Avikam, Gwa, Kyama, Akye, Ari, Abe, Adyukru, Akan (Twi, Anyi, Baule, Guang, Metyibo, Abure), Ga, Adangme
: I.A.4.c Yoruba, Igala
: I.A.4.d Nupe, Gbari, Igbira, Gade
: I.A.4.e Bini, Ishan, Kukuruku, Sobo
: I.A.4.f Idoma, Agatu, Iyala
: I.A.4.g Ibo
: I.A.4.h Ijo
:I.A.5 Benue–Congo
: I.A.5.A Plateau
: I.A.5.A.1
: I.A.5.A.1.a Kambari, Dukawa, Dakakari, Basa, Kamuku, Reshe
: I.A.5.A.1.b Piti, Janji, Kurama, Chawai, Anaguta, Buji, Amap, Gure, Kahugu, Ribina, Butawa, Kudawa
: I.A.5.A.2 Afusare, Irigwe, Katab, Kagoro, Kaje, Kachicheri, Morwa, Jaba, Kamantan, Kadara, Koro, Afo
: I.A.5.A.3 Birom, Ganawuri (Aten)
: I.A.5.A.4 Rukuba, Ninzam, Ayu, Mada, Kaninkwom
: I.A.5.A.5 Eggon, Nungu, Yeskwa
: I.A.5.A.6 Kaleri, Pyem, Pai
: I.A.5.A.7 Yergam, Basherawa
: I.A.5.B Jukunoid: Jukun, Kentu, Nyidu, Tigong, Eregba, Mbembe, Zumper ( Kutev, Mbarike), Boritsu
: I.A.5.C Cross-River
: I.A.5.C.1 Boki, Gayi ( Uge), Yakoro
: I.A.5.C.2 Ibibio, Efik, Ogoni (Kana), Andoni, Akoiyang, Ododop, Korop
: I.A.5.C.3 Akunakuna, Abine, Yako, Asiga, Ekuri, Ukelle, Okpoto-Mteze, Olulomo
: I.A.5.D Bantoid: Tiv, Bitare, Batu, Ndoro, Mambila, Bute, Bantu
:I.A.6 Adamawa–Eastern
: I.A.6.A Adamawa
: I.A.6.A.1 Tula, Dadiya, Waja, Cham, Kamu
: I.A.6.A.2 Chamba, Donga, Lekon, Wom, Mumbake
: I.A.6.A.3 Daka, Taram
: I.A.6.A.4 Vere, Namshi, Kolbila, Pape, Sari, Sewe, Woko, Kotopo, Kutin, Durru
: I.A.6.A.5 Mumuye, Kumba, Gengle, Teme, Waka, Yendang, Zinna
: I.A.6.A.6 Dama, Mono, Mbere, Mundang, Yasing, Mangbei, Mbum, Kpere, Lakka, Dek
: I.A.6.A.7 Yungur, Mboi, Libo, Roba
: I.A.6.A.8 Kam
: I.A.6.A.9 Jen, Munga
: I.A.6.A.10 Longuda
: I.A.6.A.11 Fali
: I.A.6.A.12 Nimbari
: I.A.6.A.13 Bua, Nielim, Koke
: I.A.6.A.14 Masa
: I.A.6.B Eastern
: I.A.6.B.1 Gbaya, Manja, Mbaka
: I.A.6.B.2 Banda
: I.A.6.B.3 Ngbandi, Sango, Yakoma
: I.A.6.B.4 Zande, Nzakara, Barambo, Pambia
: I.A.6.B.5 Bwaka, Monjombo, Gbanziri, Mundu, Mayogo, Bangba
: I.A.6.B.6 Ndogo, Bai, Bviri, Golo, Sere, Tagbo, Feroge, Indri, Mangaya, Togoyo
: I.A.6.B.7 Amadi ( Madyo, Ma)
: I.A.6.B.8 Mondunga, Mba ( Bamanga)
:I.B Kordofanian
:I.B.1 Koalib: Koalib, Kanderma, Heiban, Laro, Otoro, Kawama, Shwai, Tira, Moro, Fungor
:I.B.2 Tegali: Tegali, Rashad, Tagoi, Tumale
:I.B.3 Talodi: Talodi, Lafofa, Eliri, Masakin, Tacho, Lumun, El Amira
:I.B.4 Tumtum: Tumtum, Tuleshi, Keiga, Karondi, Krongo, Miri, Kadugli, Katcha
:I.B.5 Katla: Katla, Tima

II.

Nilo-Saharan

:II.A Songhai
:II.B Saharan
:II.B.a Kanuri, Kanembu
:II.B.b Teda, Daza
:II.B.c Zaghawa, Berti
:II.C Maban: Maba, Runga, Mimi of Nachtigal, Mimi of Gaudefroy-Demombynes
:II.D. Fur
:II.E. Chari–Nile
:II.E.1 Eastern Sudanic
:II.E.1.1 Nubian
:II.E.1.1.a Nile Nubian ( Mahas-Fadidja and Kenuzi-Dongola)
:II.E.1.1.b Kordofanian Nubian: Dair, Dilling, Gulfan, Garko, Kadero, Kundugr
:II.E.1.1.c Midob
:II.E.1.1.d Birked
: II.E.1.2 Murle ( Beir), Longarim, Didinga, Suri, Mekan, Murzu, Surma (including Tirma and Zulmanu), Masongo
:II.E.1.3 Barea
: II.E.1.4 Ingassana (Tabi)
:II.E.1.5 Nyima, Afitti
:II.E.1.6 Temein, Teis-um-Danab
: II.E.1.7 Merarit, Tama language, Tama, Sungor language, Sungor
:Daju languages, II.E.1.8 Dagu language of Darfur, Dagu of Darfur, Baygo language, Baygo, Sila language (Chad), Sila, Dagu language of Dar Dagu, Dagu of Dar Dagu (Wadai language, Wadai), Dagu language of Western Kordofan, Dagu of Western Kordofan, Njalgulgule language, Njalgulgule, Shatt language, Shatt, Liguri language, Liguri
:II.E.1.9 Nilotic
:II.E.1.9.a Western Nilotic languages, Western
:II.E.1.9.a.1 Burun language, Burun
:II.E.1.9.a.2 Shilluk language, Shilluk, Anuak language, Anuak, Acholi language, Acholi, Lango language (Uganda), Lango, Alur language, Alur, Luo dialect, Luo, Jur language, Jur, Belanda Bor language, Bor
:II.E.1.9.a.3 Dinka language, Dinka, Nuer language, Nuer
:II.E.1.9.b Eastern Nilotic languages, Eastern
:II.E.1.9.b.1 Bari language, Bari, Fajulu language, Fajulu, Kakwa language, Kakwa, Mondari language, Mondari
:II.E.1.9.b.2a Jie language, Jie, Dodoth language, Dodoth, Karamojong language, Karamojong, Teso language, Teso, Topotha language, Topotha, Turkana language, Turkana
:II.E.1.9.b.2b Masai language, Masai
:II.E.1.9.b.3 Southern Nilotic languages, Southern: Naandi language, Nandi, Suk language, Suk, Tatoga language, TatogaThe text says this is not a subgroup of Eastern, suggesting that this should rather be II.E.1.9.c.
:Kuliak languages, II.E.1.10 Nyangiya language, Nyangiya, Teuso language, Teuso
:II.E.2 Central Sudanic languages, Central Sudanic
:II.E.2.1 Bongo language, Bongo, Baka language (South Sudan), Baka, Morokodo language, Morokodo, Beli language (South Sudan), Beli, Gberi language, Gberi, Sara languages, Sara dialects (Madjinngay language, Madjinngay, Gulai language, Gulai, Mbai language, Mbai, Gamba language (South Sudan), Gamba, Kaba language, Kaba, Dendje language, Dendje, Laka language, Laka), Vale language, Vale, Nduka language, Nduka, Tana language (South Sudan), Tana, Horo language, Horo, Bagirmi language, Bagirmi, Kuka language, Kuka, Kenga language, Kenga, Disa language, Disa, Bubalia language, Bubalia
:II.E.2.2 Kreish language, Kreish
:II.E.2.3 Binga language, Binga, Yulu language, Yulu, Kara language (disambiguation), Kara [= Tar Gula]
:II.E.2.4 Moru language, Moru, Avukaya language, Avukaya, Logo language, Logo, Keliko language, Keliko, Lugbara language, Lugbara, Madi language (Sudan and Uganda), Madi
:II.E.2.5 Mangbetu language, Mangbetu, Lombi language (DRC), Lombi, Popoi language, Popoi, Makere language, Makere, Meje language, Meje, Asua language, Asua
:II.E.2.6 Mangbutu language, Mangbutu, Mamvu language, Mamvu, Lese language, Lese, Mvuba language, Mvuba, Efe language, Efe
:II.E.2.7 Lendu language, Lendu
:II.E.3 Berta language, Berta
:II.E.4 Kunama language, Kunama
:II.F Koman languages, Koman/Coman languages, Coman: Komo language, Komo, Ganza language, Ganza, Uduk language, Uduk, Gule language, Gule, Gumuz language, Gumuz, Mao languages, Mao

III.

Afroasiatic

:III.A Semitic
:III.B Egyptian
:III.C Berber
:III.D Cushitic languages, Cushitic
:III.D.1 Northern Cushitic: Beja language, Beja (Bedauye language, Bedauye)
:III.D.2 Central Cushitic languages, Central Cushitic: Bogo language, Bogo (Bilin language, Bilin), Kamir language, Kamir, Khamta language, Khamta, Awiya language, Awiya, Damot language, Damot, Kemant language, Kemant, Kayla language, Kayla, Quara language, Quara
:III.D.3 Eastern Cushitic languages, Eastern Cushitic: Saho language, Saho-Afar language, Afar, Somali language, Somali, Galla language, Galla, Konso language, Konso, Geleba language, Geleba, Marille language, Marille, (Reshiat language, Reshiat, Arbore language, Arbore), Gardula language, Gardula, Gidole language, Gidole, Gowaze language, Gowaze, Burji language, Burji, Sidamo language, Sidamo, Darasa language, Darasa, Kambata language, Kambata, Alaba language, Alaba, Hadya language, Hadya, Tambaro language, Tambaro, Mogogodo language, Mogogodo (added 1966)
:III.D.4 Western Cushitic languages, Western Cushitic: Janjero language, Janjero, Wolamo language, Wolamo, Zala language, Zala, Gofa language, Gofa, Basketo language, Basketo, Baditu language, Baditu, Haruro language, Haruro, Zaysse language, Zaysse, Chara language, Chara, Gimira language, Gimira, Benesho language, Benesho, Nao language, Nao, Kaba language, Kaba, Shako language, Shako, She language, She, Maji language, Maji, Kafa language, Kafa, Garo language, Garo, Mocha language, Mocha, Anfillo language, Anfillo (Mao language, Mao), Shinasha language, Shinasha, Bako language, Bako, Amar language, Amar, Bana language, Bana, Dime language, Dime, Gayi language, Gayi, Kerre language, Kerre, Tsamai language, Tsamai, Doko language (Ethiopia), Doko, Dollo language, Dollo
:III.D.5 Southern Cushitic languages, Southern Cushitic: Burungi language, Burungi (Mbulungu language, Mbulungu), Goroa language, Goroa (Fiome language, Fiome), Alawa language (Tanzania), Alawa (Uwassi language, Uwassi), Iraqw language, Iraqw, Mbugu language, Mbugu, Sanye language (disambiguation), Sanye [= Dahalo], Ngomvia language, Ngomvia (added 1966)
:III.E Chadic languages, Chad
: III.E.1
: III.E.1.a Hausa language, Hausa, Gwandara language, Gwandara
: III.E.1.b Ngizim language, Ngizim, Mober language, Mober [= Kanuri, not Chadic], Auyokawa language, Auyokawa, Shirawa language, Shirawa, Bede language, Bede
: III.E.1.c
: III.E.1.c.i Warjawa language, Warjawa, Afawa language, Afawa, Diryawa language, Diryawa, Miyawa language, Miyawa, Sirawa language, Sirawa
: III.E.1.c.ii Gezawa language, Gezawa, Seiyawa language, Sayawa, Barawa language of Dass, Barawa of Dass
: III.E.1.d
: III.E.1.d.i Bolewa language, Bolewa, Karekare language, Karekare, Ngamo language, Ngamo, Gerawa language, Gerawa, Gerumawa language, Gerumawa, Kirifawa language, Kirifawa, Dera language (Chadic), Dera (Kanakuru language, Kanakuru), Tangale language, Tangale, Pia language, Pia, Pero language, Pero, Chongee language, Chongee, Maha language, Maha (added 1966)
: III.E.1.d.ii Angas language, Angas, Ankwe language, Ankwe, Bwol language, Bwol, Chip language, Chip, Dimuk language, Dimuk, Goram language (Chadic), Goram, Jorto language, Jorto, Kwolla language, Kwolla, Miriam language (Chadic), Miriam, Montol language, Montol, Sura language (Chadic), Sura, Tal language, Tal, Gerka language, Gerka
: III.E.1.d.iii Ron language, Ron
: III.E.2 Kotoko languages, Kotoko group: Logone language, Logone, Ngala language (Chadic), Ngala [= Mpade?], Buduma language, Buduma, Kuri language (Chadic), Kuri, Gulfei language, Gulfei, Affade language, Affade, Shoe language, Shoe, Kuseri language, Kuseri
: III.E.3 Bata–Margi group
: III.E.3.a Bachama language, Bachama, Demsa language, Demsa, Gudo language, Gudo, Malabu language, Malabu, Njei language, Njei (Kobochi language, Kobochi, Nzangi language, Nzangi, Zany language, Zany), Zumu dialect (Bata), Zumu (Jimo language, Jimo), Holma language, Holma, Kapsiki language, Kapsiki, Baza language, Baza, Hiji language, Hiji, Gude language, Gude (Cheke language, Cheke), Fali language of Mubi, Fali of Mubi, Fali language of Kiria, Fali of Kiria, Fali language of Jilbu, Fali of Jilbu, Margi language, Margi, Chibak language, Chibak, Kilba language, Kilba, Sukur language, Sukur, Vizik language, Vizik, Vemgo language, Vemgo, Woga language, Woga, Tur language, Tur, Bura language, Bura, Pabir language, Pabir, Podokwo language, Podokwo
: III.E.3.b Gabin language, Gabin, Hona language, Hona, Tera language, Tera, Jera language (Chadic), Jera, Hinna language, Hinna (Hina language, Hina)
: III.E.4
: III.E.4.a Hina language, Hina, Daba language, Daba, Musgoi language, Musgoi, Gauar language, Gauar
: III.E.4.b North Gisiga language, Gisiga, Balda language, Balda, Muturua language, Muturua, Mofu language, Mofu, Matakam language, Matakam
: III.E.5 Gidder language, Gidder
: III.E.6 Mandara language (Chadic), Mandara, Gamergu language, Gamergu
: III.E.7 Musgu language, Musgu
: III.E.8 Bana language, Bana, Banana language (disambiguation), Banana (Masa language, Masa), Lame language, Lame, Kulung language (Chad), Kulung
: III.E.9
: III.E.9.a Somrai language, Somrai, Tumak language, Tumak, Ndam language, Ndam, Miltu language, Miltu, Sarwa language (Chad), Sarwa, Gulei language (Chadic), Gulei [= Tumak?]
: III.E.9.b Gabere language, Gabere, Chiri language, Chiri, Dormo language, Dormo, Nangire language, Nangire
: III.E.9.c Sokoro language, Sokoro (Bedanga language, Bedanga), Barein language, Barein
: III.E.9.d Modgel language, Modgel
: III.E.9.e Tuburi language, Tuburi
: III.E.9.f Mubi language, Mubi, Karbo language, Karbo, (added 1966: Jegu language, Jegu, Jonkor language, Jonkor, Wadai-Birgid language, Wadai-Birgid)

IV Khoisan languages, Khoisan

:IV.A South African Khoisan
:IV.A.1 Northern South African Khoisan languages, Northern South African Khoisan
:IV.A.2 Central South African Khoisan languages, Central South African Khoisan
:IV.A.3 Southern South African Khoisan languages, Southern South African Khoisan
:IV.B Sandawe
:IV.C Hatsa language, Hatsa

Bibliography

*Greenberg, Joseph H. (1963) ''The Languages of Africa''. International journal of American linguistics, 29, 1, part 2.
*Greenberg, Joseph H. (1966) ''The Languages of Africa'' (2nd ed. with additions and corrections). Bloomington: Indiana University.

References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Languages of Africa
1963 non-fiction books
American non-fiction books
Books about Africa
Books on linguistic typology
Classification of African languages
English-language books
Languages of Africa
Linguistics books