Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces
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The Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces (
Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
: القوات المسلحة لسلطان عمان,
transliterated Transliteration is a type of conversion of a text from one script to another that involves swapping letters (thus '' trans-'' + '' liter-'') in predictable ways, such as Greek → , Cyrillic → , Greek → the digraph , Armenian → or ...
: ''al-Quwāt ul-Musallaḥatu lis-Sulṭān 'Umān'') are the
Royal Army of Oman The Royal Army of Oman (Arabic: الجيش العماني, transliterated: ''al-Jaīsh al-'Umānī'') is the ground forces component of the Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces. It was founded in 1907 as the Muscat Garrison. It has a current strength ...
,
Royal Navy of Oman The Royal Navy of Oman ( ar, البحرية السلطانية العمانية), abbreviated RNO, is the maritime component of the Royal Armed Forces of the Sultanate of Oman. Given its long coastline and strategic location along the Indian Oc ...
,
Royal Air Force of Oman The Royal Air Force of Oman ( ar, سلاح الجو السلطاني عمان, Silāḥ al-Jaww as-Sulṭāniy ‘Umān or RAFO) is the air arm of the Armed Forces of Oman. History Sultan of Oman's Air Force era The Sultan of Oman's Air Force ...
,
Sultan's Special Force The Sultan's Special Force (SSF) — Arabic: قوات السلطان الخاصة, transliterated: ''Qawat al-Sultaniya al-Khasah'' is a separate force branch within the Sultan's Armed Forces (SAF) and although equipped to carry out land def ...
and other defense forces of the
Sultanate of Oman Oman ( ; ar, عُمَان ' ), officially the Sultanate of Oman ( ar, سلْطنةُ عُمان ), is an Arabian country located in southwestern Asia. It is situated on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and spans the mouth of t ...
. Since their formal establishment in the early 1950s, with
British British may refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories, and Crown Dependencies. ** Britishness, the British identity and common culture * British English, ...
assistance SAF has twice overcome insurgencies which have threatened the integrity or social structure of the state, and more recently have contributed contingents or facilities to coalitions formed to protect
Arab states of the Persian Gulf The Arab states of the Persian Gulf refers to a group of Arab states which border the Persian Gulf. There are seven member states of the Arab League in the region: Bahrain, Kuwait, Iraq, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. ...
.


History

Oman has a military history which dates back to the 7th century. At the time, the forces of the
Azd The Azd ( ar, أَزْد), or ''Al-Azd'' ( ar, ٱلْأَزْد), are a Tribes of Arabia, tribe of Sabaeans, Sabaean Arabs. In ancient times, the Sabaeans inhabited Ma'rib, capital city of the Sabaeans, Kingdom of Saba' in modern-day Yemen. Th ...
tribe were powerful enough to help the prophet Mohammed's companion
Abu Bakr Abu Bakr Abdallah ibn Uthman Abi Quhafa (; – 23 August 634) was the senior companion and was, through his daughter Aisha, a father-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, as well as the first caliph of Islam. He is known with the honor ...
, in the War of al Mortadeen. It is said that even before that, the Azd tribe, led by Malek bin Faham, were able to defeat a
Persian Persian may refer to: * People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language ** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples ** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...
force which controlled Oman at that time. The second known Omani army force was raised during the
Yarubid dynasty The Yarubid dynasty () (also the Yaruba or Ya'arubi) were rulers of Oman between 1624 and 1742, holding the title of Imam. They expelled the Portuguese from coastal strongholds in Muscat and united the country. They improved agriculture, expanded ...
, who forced the
Portuguese Portuguese may refer to: * anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Portugal ** Portuguese cuisine, traditional foods ** Portuguese language, a Romance language *** Portuguese dialects, variants of the Portuguese language ** Portu ...
out of the country in 1650. During the rule of the Yarubi dynasty, fortified buildings covered the country from the north of Musandam to the south of
Dhofar The Dhofar Governorate ( ar, مُحَافَظَة ظُفَار, Muḥāfaẓat Ẓufār) is the largest of the 11 Governorates in the Sultanate of Oman in terms of area. It lies in Southern Oman, on the eastern border with Yemen's Al Mahrah Gov ...
, making Oman a great power in the Persian Gulf. During the later al Busaidi dynasty, (mainly during the time of
Said bin Sultan Sayyid Saïd bin Sultan al-Busaidi ( ar, سعيد بن سلطان, , sw, Saïd bin Sultani) (5 June 1791 – 19 October 1856), was Sultan of Muscat and Oman, the fifth ruler of the Busaid dynasty from 1804 to 4 June 1856. His rule commenced fol ...
), Oman was a substantial empire with a very powerful military force, making Oman one of the greatest forces in the
Indian Ocean The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering or ~19.8% of the water on Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia to the east. To the south it is bounded by th ...
, second only to the
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and North ...
. After Said bin Sultan's death, political conflicts in Oman forced Oman to close in upon itself, and to transform from a powerful empire to a relatively poor country.


Buraimi dispute

Prior to 1954, when
Said bin Taimur Said bin Taimur ( ar, سعيد بن تيمور; 13 August 1910 – 19 October 1972) was the 13th Sultan of Muscat and Oman from 10 February 1932 until he was deposed on 23 July 1970 by his son Qaboos bin Said. He was a member of the House of ...
became ruler of
Muscat and Oman The Sultanate of Muscat and Oman ( ar, سلطنة مسقط وعمان, Salṭanat Masqaṭ wa-‘Umān), also known briefly as the State of Muscat and Oman () during the rule of Taimur bin Feisal, was a sovereign state that encompassed the prese ...
, the defence of the region was guaranteed by treaties with the
British Empire The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts esta ...
. The only armed forces in Muscat and Oman were tribal levies and a palace guard recruited from
Baluchistan Balochistan ( ; bal, بلۏچستان; also romanised as Baluchistan and Baluchestan) is a historical region in Western and South Asia, located in the Iranian plateau's far southeast and bordering the Indian Plate and the Arabian Sea coastline. ...
in
Pakistan Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 24 ...
(due to a historical quirk by which the Sultan also owned the port of
Gwadur Gwadar ( Balochi/ ur, ) is a port city with located on the southwestern coast of Balochistan, Pakistan. The city is located on the shores of the Arabian Sea opposite Oman. Gwadar is the 100th largest city of Pakistan, according to the 2017 ...
). Prior to that year, there had been a dispute with
Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in Western Asia. It covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and has a land area of about , making it the fifth-largest country in Asia, the second-largest in the A ...
over the ownership of the
Buraimi Oasis Tawam ( ar, تَوَام, Tawām), also Tuwwam, Tu'am, or "Al-Buraimi Oasis" ( ar, وَاحَة ٱلْبُرَيْمِي, Wāḥat Al-Buraymī), is a historical oasis region in Eastern Arabia that stretched from, or was located between, the Weste ...
, which was important for oil exploration rights. For many centuries, the interior of Oman had been an autonomous region, the
Imamate of Oman The Imamate of Oman ( ar, إِمَامَة عُمَان, Imāmat ʿUmān, links=no) refers to a historical state within the ''Oman proper'' ( ar, عُمَان ٱلْوُسْطَى, ʿUmān al-Wusṭā) in the present-day Al Hajar Mountains in S ...
. The Imam of Oman was its religious and secular leader. In 1954, the Imam was Ghalib bin Ali. He had been prepared to muster Omani tribesmen to expel the Saudis from Buraimi, but at British instigation, the matter was settled by arbitration. To prevent the Imam interfering with the settlement over Buraimi, a battalion-sized task force, the ''Muscat and Oman Field Force'' was raised, and occupied the town of
Ibri , native_name_lang = ar , nickname = , settlement_type = Town , motto = , image_skyline = Ibri, Oman (2013).jpg , image_caption = Fort Ibri , image_flag = , image_shield ...
. The Sultan's prestige and authority was damaged by his disdain for his own people. At this point, the SAF consisted of: :''Batinah Force'' (an infantry unit raised from the coastal region north of Muscat) :''Muscat Regiment'' (the expanded former Palace Guard). :''Muscat and Oman Field Force'' Some British officers were attached to each unit.


Jebel Akhdar campaigns

With the ''Field Force'' occupying part of his territory, Ghalib tried to declare the Imamate of Oman independent, but in December 1955 the ''Field Force'' captured Ghalib at the town of Rostaq. He was released on recognisances.


Rebellion in 1957

Talib bin Ali, the Imam's brother, had fled to Saudi Arabia. He returned from there in 1957 with 300 well-equipped fighters, and the insurrection broke out again. Talib's forces occupied a fortified tower near Bilad Sait, which the ''Field Force'' lacked the heavy weapons to destroy. After some weeks' inconclusive fighting, Suleiman bin Himyar, the Sheikh of one of the major tribes in the interior, openly proclaimed his defiance of the Sultan, and began a general uprising. The ''Muscat and Oman Field Force'' was largely destroyed as it tried to retreat through hostile towns and villages. The rebellion was suppressed by the ''Muscat Regiment'' and the
Trucial Oman Levies The Trucial Oman Scouts was a paramilitary force that the British raised in 1951 as the Trucial Oman Levies, to serve in the Trucial States. In 1956, the Levies were renamed the Trucial Oman Scouts. In 1971, upon the formation of the United Arab ...
from the neighbouring
United Arab Emirates The United Arab Emirates (UAE; ar, اَلْإِمَارَات الْعَرَبِيَة الْمُتَحِدَة ), or simply the Emirates ( ar, الِْإمَارَات ), is a country in Western Asia (The Middle East). It is located at th ...
. The decisive factor however, was the intervention of infantry (two companies of the Cameronians) and armoured car detachments from the
British Army The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom, a part of the British Armed Forces along with the Royal Navy and the Royal Air Force. , the British Army comprises 79,380 regular full-time personnel, 4,090 Gurk ...
and aircraft of the
RAF The Royal Air Force (RAF) is the United Kingdom's air and space force. It was formed towards the end of the First World War on 1 April 1918, becoming the first independent air force in the world, by regrouping the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) and ...
. Talib's forces retreated to the inaccessible Jebel Akhdar. The SAF's attacks up the few paths up the Jebel were easily repelled.


Stalemate 1957–1959

The Sultan's army was reorganised under a British soldier, Colonel
David Smiley Colonel David de Crespigny Smiley, (11 April 1916 – 9 January 2009) was a British special forces and intelligence officer. He fought in the Second World War in Palestine, Iraq, Persia, Syria, the Western Desert and with Special Operations Ex ...
. The ''Batinah Force'' was renamed the ''Northern Frontier Regiment'' and the remnants of the ''Muscat and Oman Field Force'' merged into the new ''Oman Regiment''. Within each unit and sub-unit, Baluchi and Arab soldiers were mixed. This prevented units defecting to or openly sympathising with the rebels, but led to tensions within units, and orders were frequently not followed because of language problems. Many of the notionally Omani soldiers were recruited from the province of
Dhofar The Dhofar Governorate ( ar, مُحَافَظَة ظُفَار, Muḥāfaẓat Ẓufār) is the largest of the 11 Governorates in the Sultanate of Oman in terms of area. It lies in Southern Oman, on the eastern border with Yemen's Al Mahrah Gov ...
, and looked down upon by other Arabs. The Army was still unable to deal with Talib's stronghold. The few paths up the Jebel Akhdar were far too narrow to deploy attacking battalions or even companies. One attempt was made against the southern face of the Jebel, using four infantry companies (including two companies from the
Trucial Oman Scouts The Trucial Oman Scouts was a paramilitary force that the British raised in 1951 as the Trucial Oman Levies, to serve in the Trucial States. In 1956, the Levies were renamed the Trucial Oman Scouts. In 1971, upon the formation of the United Arab ...
, from what would later become the
United Arab Emirates The United Arab Emirates (UAE; ar, اَلْإِمَارَات الْعَرَبِيَة الْمُتَحِدَة ), or simply the Emirates ( ar, الِْإمَارَات ), is a country in Western Asia (The Middle East). It is located at th ...
. The attackers withdrew hastily after concluding they were vulnerable to being ambushed and cut off. In another attempt, infantry launched a feint and then withdrew while
Avro Shackleton The Avro Shackleton is a British long-range maritime patrol aircraft (MPA) which was used by the Royal Air Force (RAF) and the South African Air Force (SAAF). It was developed by Avro from the Avro Lincoln bomber, which itself had been a devel ...
bombers of the RAF bombarded the supposedly massed defenders. They inflicted no casualties. For two years, rebel infiltrators continually mined the roads around the Jebel, and ambushed SAF and British detachments and oil company vehicles. The SAF were spread in small detachments in the towns and villages at the foot of the Jebel, and thus vulnerable and on the defensive. Their arms (mainly British weapons of
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
vintage) were less effective than the up-to-date equipment used by Talib's fighters. An SAF artillery unit with two 5.5-inch medium guns harassed the settlements on the plateau on top of the Jebel Akhdar, to little effect. It was estimated by some British officers that a full-scale attack by a British brigade would be required to recapture the jebel. Smiley and others felt that a smaller operation by Special Forces with air support would suffice. Eventually in 1959, two squadrons from the British
Special Air Service The Special Air Service (SAS) is a special forces unit of the British Army. It was founded as a regiment in 1941 by David Stirling and in 1950, it was reconstituted as a corps. The unit specialises in a number of roles including counter-terro ...
were deployed, under
Anthony Deane-Drummond Major-General Anthony John Deane-Drummond, CB, DSO, MC & Bar (23 June 1917 – 4 December 2012) was an officer of the Royal Signals in the British Army, whose career was mostly spent with airborne forces. During the Second World War, he was ...
. After making feint operations against outlying positions on the north side of the Jebel, they scaled the southern face of the Jebel at night, taking the rebels by surprise. Supplies were parachuted to them once they reached the plateau; this may have misled some of the rebels into thinking that this was an assault by paratroops. There was little further fighting. Talib and his fighters either melted back into the local population or fled to Saudi Arabia.


Later operations in Oman

Some insurgents continued to cross into Oman from Saudi Arabia or via the UAE, and laid landmines which continued to cause casualties to SAF units and civilian vehicles. The SAF lacked the numbers to prevent this infiltration. A paramilitary force, the ''Oman Gendarmerie'' was formed in 1960 to assist the SAF in this task, and also to take over normal policing duties. The landmine campaign eventually dwindled away. The only apparent threat to Oman at this point appeared to be a shadowy Marxist group who attempted to assassinate the Sultan's Interior Minister, and may also have planted bombs on civil aircraft, including a
Vickers Viscount The Vickers Viscount is a British medium-range turboprop airliner first flown in 1948 by Vickers-Armstrongs. A design requirement from the Brabazon Committee, it entered service in 1953 and was the first turboprop-powered airliner. The Visc ...
of
United Arab Airlines United may refer to: Places * United, Pennsylvania, an unincorporated community * United, West Virginia, an unincorporated community Arts and entertainment Films * United (2003 film), ''United'' (2003 film), a Norwegian film * United (2011 film) ...
which broke up in mid-air north of Elba on 29 September 1960, killing all 23 people on board.


Dhofar campaign

In 1964, a rebellion began in the southern province of
Dhofar The Dhofar Governorate ( ar, مُحَافَظَة ظُفَار, Muḥāfaẓat Ẓufār) is the largest of the 11 Governorates in the Sultanate of Oman in terms of area. It lies in Southern Oman, on the eastern border with Yemen's Al Mahrah Gov ...
, again supported by Saudi Arabia. The initial aims of the rebellion were greater autonomy for the region, and an improvement in its living standards. The Sultan's forces in Dhofar consisted only of an irregular ''Dhofar Force'', recruited from local "jibali" tribes. Only in 1965 were two battalions of the SAF sent to the province. Most units of the Omani Army at this time were understrength, and badly equipped and trained. The air force consisted of a few piston-engined transport and ground-attack aircraft. The navy possessed a single
dhow Dhow ( ar, داو, translit=dāwa; mr, script=Latn, dāw) is the generic name of a number of traditional sailing vessels with one or more masts with settee or sometimes lateen sails, used in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean region. Typically spor ...
. The ''Dhofar Force'' was disbanded in 1966, after some of its members tried to assassinate the Sultan. The ''Desert Regiment'' was raised to replace it. The ''Southern Regiment'' was also formed and all Baluchi soldiers were eventually concentrated in the two battalions of this regiment, although the change took several years to implement fully. The rebellion continued at a low level until 1967. In that year, the establishment of the
People's Democratic Republic of Yemen South Yemen ( ar, اليمن الجنوبي, al-Yaman al-Janubiyy), officially the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (, ), also referred to as Democratic Yemen (, ) or Yemen (Aden) (, ), was a communist state that existed from 1967 to 19 ...
(PDRY) adjacent to Dhofar, gave the rebels access to sources of arms, supplies and recruits, and also radicalised the rebel movement. As the PFLOAG, this sought the overthrow of the Sultanate and other pro-Western regimes in the Persian Gulf. By 1969, the ''Adoo'', as the rebels were known, had overrun much of Dhofar, and there were attacks on SAF positions elsewhere in Oman. It was clear to the Sultan's British backers and advisors that the situation was critical. Said bin Taimur's rule had been reactionary and despotic. Almost all progress since the Middle Ages had been outlawed in Oman. In 1970, the Sultan was overthrown in a palace coup, which was planned and supported by the British. His son,
Qaboos bin Said Qaboos bin Said Al Said ( ar, قابوس بن سعيد آل سعيد, ; 18 November 1940 – 10 January 2020) was Sultan of Oman from 23 July 1970 until his death in 2020. A fifteenth-generation descendant of the founder of the House of Al Said ...
, replaced him.


Reform and modernisation

Qaboos had attended Sandhurst and served as an officer in the British Army with the 1st Bn the
Cameronians (Scottish Rifles) The Cameronians (Scottish Rifles) was a rifle regiment of the British Army, the only regiment of rifles amongst the Scottish regiments of infantry. It was formed in 1881 under the Childers Reforms by the amalgamation of the 26th Cameronian Reg ...
. His outlook was far wider and more liberal than his father's. He immediately instituted major social and military reforms throughout the country. As part of a "hearts and minds" campaign to win over the population of Dhofar, an amnesty was declared for surrendered rebels. Former rebels formed '' Firqat'' irregular units, trained and assisted by teams from the Special Air Service. The ''Firqats'' eventually numbered 1800, and deprived the rebels of local support in their home areas. Meanwhile, the regular units of the Army were expanded and re-equipped. More Omanis were recruited and Baluchis were concentrated in separated units. Large numbers of officers and NCO instructors seconded from the
British Army The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom, a part of the British Armed Forces along with the Royal Navy and the Royal Air Force. , the British Army comprises 79,380 regular full-time personnel, 4,090 Gurk ...
and
Royal Marines The Corps of Royal Marines (RM), also known as the Royal Marines Commandos, are the UK's special operations capable commando force, amphibious light infantry and also one of the five fighting arms of the Royal Navy. The Corps of Royal Marine ...
were attached to units. (There were also several British and Commonwealth mercenaries). Two new infantry units were raised in 1971: the ''Frontier Force'' (a Baluchi unit) in Dhofar, and the ''Jebel Regiment'' in the interior of Oman. The various supporting arms, which had previously existed as ad hoc units and detachments were also formally established. The new corps were the ''Artillery Regiment'', ''Signal Regiment'', ''Armoured Car Squadron'', ''Engineering Unit'', ''Garrison Detachment'' and the ''Training Regiment''. The ''Oman Gendarmerie'' was also strengthened and modernised. The Air Force acquired
BAC Strikemaster The BAC 167 Strikemaster is a British jet-powered training and light attack aircraft. It was a development of the Hunting Jet Provost trainer, itself a jet engined version of the Percival Provost, which originally flew in 1950 with a radial p ...
and
Hawker Hunter The Hawker Hunter is a transonic British jet-powered fighter aircraft that was developed by Hawker Aircraft for the Royal Air Force (RAF) during the late 1940s and early 1950s. It was designed to take advantage of the newly developed Rolls-R ...
attack aircraft, Shorts Skyvan and
Caribou Reindeer (in North American English, known as caribou if wild and ''reindeer'' if domesticated) are deer in the genus ''Rangifer''. For the last few decades, reindeer were assigned to one species, ''Rangifer tarandus'', with about 10 subspe ...
transport aircraft, and
UH-1 Iroquois The Bell UH-1 Iroquois (nicknamed "Huey") is a utility military helicopter designed and produced by the American aerospace company Bell Helicopter. It is the first member of the prolific Huey family, as well as the first turbine-powered helico ...
helicopters, flown by seconded RAF or contract (i.e. mercenary) pilots. Two Pilatus Porter air ambulances used extensively during the Dhofar conflict were retained in the Air Force until the late 1970s.


Later operations in Dhofar

The army established lines of defensive posts to block rebel movements and supply trains, assisted by troops supplied by the
Shah of Iran This is a list of monarchs of Persia (or monarchs of the Iranic peoples, in present-day Iran), which are known by the royal title Shah or Shahanshah. This list starts from the establishment of the Medes around 671 BCE until the deposition of th ...
. The process took time, but by 1972 the rebels were being starved of support. To retrieve the situation, they launched a major attack on the coastal town of
Mirbat Mirbat ( ar, مرباط) is a coastal town in the Dhofar governorate, in southwestern Oman. It was the site of the 1972 Battle of Mirbat between Communist guerrillas on one side and the armed forces of the Sultan of Oman and their Special Air S ...
, but were defeated by ''Firqats'', Gendarmerie and SAS detachments, with air support. In 1973, an SAF offensive intended to capture the main rebel supply base at Shershitti Caves was defeated, although an exposed position at
Sarfait Sarfait (Sarfayt) is a settlement in the Dhofar Governorate of Oman on the coast of the Arabian Sea, near the border with Yemen. There is an international border checkpoint at Sarfait; on the Yemeni side of the border is the settlement of Hawf. ...
near the border with the PDRY was captured. This position, codenamed ''Simba'', was held for two years. Meanwhile, the ''Adoo'' were slowly driven to the edge of their former territory. Another offensive in 1975 finally isolated the rebels from the PDRY. The rebellion was declared to be over in 1976. At the end of this period, the Army numbered 13,000. It was organised into a Southern Brigade (under Brigadier John Akehurst, responsible for operations in Dhofar), and a Northern Brigade which garrisoned the rest of the country. The Army's Commander-in-Chief during most of the Dhofar rebellion was Major General
Timothy Creasey General Sir Timothy May Creasey (21 September 1923 – 5 October 1986) was a British Army officer who became General Officer Commanding of the British Army in Northern Ireland, as well as the commander of the Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces. R ...
, who was replaced near the end of the conflict by Major General Ken Perkins.


Gulf Wars

In the years following the end of the Dhofar rebellion, the SAF continued to expand and modernise. Links with Britain remained close and all three UK armed services have provided advisers on Loan Service to the SAF and this arrangement remains in place; although numbers have steadily reduced as 'Omanisation' progressed. One facility enjoyed by Britain was the use of the airbase on
Masirah Island Masirah Island ( ar, جَزِيْرَة مَصِيْرَة, Jazīrat Maṣīrah), also referred to as Mazeira Island or ''Wilāyat Maṣīrah'' ( ar, وِلَايَة مَصِيْرَة), is an island off the east coast of mainland Oman in the ...
off the southern coast, as a staging post. The
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
was granted the same facilities, which was to become important as tension increased in the
Persian Gulf The Persian Gulf ( fa, خلیج فارس, translit=xalij-e fârs, lit=Gulf of Persis, Fars, ), sometimes called the ( ar, اَلْخَلِيْجُ ٱلْعَرَبِيُّ, Al-Khalīj al-ˁArabī), is a Mediterranean sea (oceanography), me ...
. In the mid-1980s the Sultan of Oman's Air Force (SOAF) operated Hawker Hunter F6,
SEPECAT Jaguar The SEPECAT Jaguar is an Anglo-French jet attack aircraft originally used by the British Royal Air Force and the French Air Force in the close air support and nuclear strike role. It is still in service with the Indian Air Force. Originall ...
and
C-130 Hercules The Lockheed C-130 Hercules is an American four-engine turboprop military transport aircraft designed and built by Lockheed Corporation, Lockheed (now Lockheed Martin). Capable of using unprepared runways for takeoffs and landings, the C-130 ...
aircraft from an in-country air base at
Thumrait Thumrait ( ar, ثمريت) is a small town and wilayat (province) of the Dhofar Governorate in southern Oman. In ancient times Thumrait was an important point on the Arabian peninsula's caravan routes. Frankincense trees, an important crop, used ...
. In 1987 there was a border conflict with the PDRY which saw the whole of the SAF mobilised. Sorties into Oman by Toyota pickup trucks armed with Dushka 12.5mm heavy machine guns killed several lightly-armed Omani troops. The PDRY sent a Motorised Infantry force to reinforce the border but this was destroyed by SOAF Jaguars. Peace talks quickly followed. As part of the
Gulf Cooperation Council The Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf ( ar, مجلس التعاون لدول العربية الخليج ), also known as the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC; ar, مجلس التعاون الخليجي), is a regional, interg ...
(GCC), Oman assigned an infantry battalion to the force known as
Peninsula Shield The Peninsula Shield Force (or ''Peninsula Shield''; ar, دِرْعُ الجَزيرَة, Dirʿ al-Jazīra) is the military arm of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). It is intended to deter, and respond to military aggression against any of t ...
during the
Iran–Iraq War The Iran–Iraq War was an armed conflict between Iran and Iraq that lasted from September 1980 to August 1988. It began with the Iraqi invasion of Iran and lasted for almost eight years, until the acceptance of United Nations Security Council ...
. In 1990, the Iraqi Army unexpectedly invaded
Kuwait Kuwait (; ar, الكويت ', or ), officially the State of Kuwait ( ar, دولة الكويت '), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated in the northern edge of Eastern Arabia at the tip of the Persian Gulf, bordering Iraq to the nort ...
, also a member of the GCC. A large international coalition formed, first to discourage further Iraqi aggression. The aims of the coalition changed to the restoration of Kuwaiti sovereignty, as more forces were deployed to Saudi Arabia. Oman's role in
First Gulf War The Gulf War was a 1990–1991 armed campaign waged by a 35-country military coalition in response to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Spearheaded by the United States, the coalition's efforts against Iraq were carried out in two key phases: ...
was mainly as a base area and staging post for the large
United States Air Force The United States Air Force (USAF) is the air service branch of the United States Armed Forces, and is one of the eight uniformed services of the United States. Originally created on 1 August 1907, as a part of the United States Army Signal ...
and British
Royal Air Force The Royal Air Force (RAF) is the United Kingdom's air and space force. It was formed towards the end of the First World War on 1 April 1918, becoming the first independent air force in the world, by regrouping the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) and ...
contingents deployed to the
Persian Gulf The Persian Gulf ( fa, خلیج فارس, translit=xalij-e fârs, lit=Gulf of Persis, Fars, ), sometimes called the ( ar, اَلْخَلِيْجُ ٱلْعَرَبِيُّ, Al-Khalīj al-ˁArabī), is a Mediterranean sea (oceanography), me ...
. Some transport aircraft and tanker aircraft flew out of Masirah, but the Sultan of Oman's Air Force did not directly participate in attacks on Iraq. An Omani battalion served in Saudi Arabia, as part of the GCC contribution to the ground war to liberate Kuwait. It formed part of the Saudi Arabian-led Task Force Omar along with the Saudi 10th Mechanised Brigade. It advanced into Kuwait on the second day of the ground offensive and had no casualties. In 2001, Oman hosted a large contingent of the British Army, which held Exercise
Saif Sareea II Exercise Saif Sareea ( ar, سيف سريع ) is a series of military exercises undertaken by the United Kingdom and Oman which first began in 1986 and most recently took place in 2018. Saif Sareea 1 Exercise Saif Sareea 1 was the first exercise h ...
(in which 12500 members of the SAF also participated). The stated aims of the exercise were to practise rapid deployment and test equipment in severe conditions.


Present day

Since the defeat of the Dhofar insurgents, the likelihood of internal strife caused by poverty or tribal dissension has steadily decreased as a result of the increasing standards of living, and the provision of public health and education. Tension on Oman's western border has lessened since the establishment in 1990 of the
Republic of Yemen Yemen (; ar, ٱلْيَمَن, al-Yaman), officially the Republic of Yemen,, ) is a country in Western Asia. It is situated on the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula, and borders Saudi Arabia to the north and Oman to the northeast and sha ...
. Oman includes the tip of the Mussandam Peninsula in the Persian Gulf, which may be significant in future conflicts in the region. The army has steadily decreased its dependence on British and other foreign assistance, and increased its degree of mechanisation, although emphasis on light infantry operations remains; as part of their training, soldiers repeat the SAS ascent of the Jebel Akhdar in 1959. The Navy is one of the most modern in the region, and the Air Force is respected. In any future major regional conflict, Oman may be able to rely on support and aid from Britain and the United States.


Equipment

The army is qualitatively superior to that of many neighbouring countries except Saudi Arabia and Iran, with one regiment of British-built
Challenger 2 The FV4034 Challenger 2 (MOD designation "CR2") is a third generation British main battle tank (MBT) in service with the armies of the United Kingdom and Oman. It was designed and built by the British company Vickers Defence Systems (now known ...
main battle tanks and the other slightly larger regiment of M60 (predominantly M60A3s) MBTs rounding out Oman's sole armoured brigade. Oman recently received 174
Piranha A piranha or piraña (, , or ; or , ) is one of a number of freshwater fish in the family Serrasalmidae, or the subfamily Serrasalminae within the tetra family, Characidae in order Characiformes. These fish inhabit South American rivers, ...
light armoured vehicles and over 80 VBL scout cars from France to further strengthen military capabilities. In terms of artillery, in the 1990s, Oman received G6 155 mm
howitzers A howitzer () is a long-ranged weapon, falling between a cannon (also known as an artillery gun in the United States), which fires shells at flat trajectories, and a mortar, which fires at high angles of ascent and descent. Howitzers, like oth ...
from
South Africa South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the southernmost country in Africa. It is bounded to the south by of coastline that stretch along the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans; to the north by the neighbouring countri ...
, and Oman's anti-tank capabilities are to be greatly strengthened by the soon-to-be-delivered 100 Javelin missiles from the United States. On a troop level, Oman's armed forces are frequently trained and briefed by the regular
British Army The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom, a part of the British Armed Forces along with the Royal Navy and the Royal Air Force. , the British Army comprises 79,380 regular full-time personnel, 4,090 Gurk ...
, including the elite
Special Air Service The Special Air Service (SAS) is a special forces unit of the British Army. It was founded as a regiment in 1941 by David Stirling and in 1950, it was reconstituted as a corps. The unit specialises in a number of roles including counter-terro ...
(SAS). The primary assault rifle of the Omani army is the Austrian Steyr AUG rifle, with some special task units using
M-16 The M16 rifle (officially designated Rifle, Caliber 5.56 mm, M16) is a family of military rifles adapted from the ArmaLite AR-15 rifle for the United States military. The original M16 rifle was a 5.56×45mm automatic rifle with a 20-roun ...
and M-4 variants, plus many other small arms varieties.


Air Force Equipment


References


The Sultan’s Armed Forces mentioning the Royal Air Force of Oman


Sources

*''Warlords of Oman'', by Philip Allfree, 1967, Barnes *''Desert Warrior'', by HRH Khaled bin Sultan, 1995, Harper Collins, {{DEFAULTSORT:Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces Military of Oman Military units and formations established in 1959