Stem rust
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Stem rust, also known as cereal rust, black rust, red rust or red dust, is caused by the
fungus A fungus ( : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, separately fr ...
''Puccinia graminis'', which causes significant disease in
cereal A cereal is any grass cultivated for the edible components of its grain (botanically, a type of fruit called a caryopsis), composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. Cereal grain crops are grown in greater quantities and provide more food ...
crops. Crop species that are affected by the disease include bread wheat, durum wheat,
barley Barley (''Hordeum vulgare''), a member of the grass family, is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally. It was one of the first cultivated grains, particularly in Eurasia as early as 10,000 years ago. Globally 70% of barley p ...
and
triticale Triticale (; × ''Triticosecale'') is a hybrid of wheat (''Triticum'') and rye (''Secale'') first bred in laboratories during the late 19th century in Scotland and Germany. Commercially available triticale is almost always a second-generation ...
. These diseases have affected cereal farming throughout history. The annual recurrence of stem rust of wheat in North Indian plains was discovered by Prof. K.C. Mehta. Since the 1950s, wheat strains bred to be resistant to stem rust have become available.
Fungicide Fungicides are biocidal chemical compounds or biological organisms used to kill parasitic fungi or their spores. A fungistatic inhibits their growth. Fungi can cause serious damage in agriculture, resulting in critical losses of yield, quality ...
s effective against stem rust are available as well. In 1999 a new virulent race of stem rust was identified against which most current wheat strains show no resistance. The race was named TTKSK (e.g. isolate Ug99). An
epidemic An epidemic (from Greek ἐπί ''epi'' "upon or above" and δῆμος ''demos'' "people") is the rapid spread of disease to a large number of patients among a given population within an area in a short period of time. Epidemics of infectious ...
of stem rust on wheat caused by race TTKSK spread across
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,
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and the
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, causing major concern due to the large numbers of people dependent on wheat for sustenance, thus threatening global
food security Food security speaks to the availability of food in a country (or geography) and the ability of individuals within that country (geography) to access, afford, and source adequate foodstuffs. According to the United Nations' Committee on World ...
. An outbreak of another virulent race of stem rust, TTTTF, took place in
Sicily (man) it, Siciliana (woman) , population_note = , population_blank1_title = , population_blank1 = , demographics_type1 = Ethnicity , demographics1_footnotes = , demographi ...
in 2016, suggesting that the disease is returning to Europe. Comprehensive
genomic Genomics is an interdisciplinary field of biology focusing on the structure, function, evolution, mapping, and editing of genomes. A genome is an organism's complete set of DNA, including all of its genes as well as its hierarchical, three-dim ...
analysis of ''Puccinia graminis'', combined with plant pathology and climate data, has pointed out the potential of the re-emergence of stem wheat rust in UK.


History of stem rust

The fungal ancestors of stem rust have infected grasses for millions of years and wheat crops for as long as they have been grown.Kaplan, Karen (July 22, 2009) "A red alert for wheat". ''
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''
According to Jim Peterson, professor of wheat breeding and genetics at
Oregon State University Oregon State University (OSU) is a public land-grant, research university in Corvallis, Oregon. OSU offers more than 200 undergraduate-degree programs along with a variety of graduate and doctoral degrees. It has the 10th largest engineering ...
, "Stem rust destroyed more than 20% of U.S. wheat crops several times between 1917 and 1935, and losses reached 9% twice in the 1950s," with the last U.S. outbreak in 1962 destroying 5.2% of the crop. Stem rust has been an ongoing problem dating back to
Aristotle Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ...
's time (384–322 B.C). An early ancient practice by the Romans was one where they would sacrifice red animals such as foxes, dogs, and cows to Robigus (''fem.'' Robigo), the rust god. They would perform this ritual in the spring during a festival known as the Robigalia in hopes of the wheat crop being spared from the destruction caused by the rust. Weather records from that time have been reexamined and it has been speculated that the fall of the Roman Empire was due to a string of rainy seasons in which the rust would have been more harsh, resulting in reduced wheat harvests. Laws banning barberry were established in 1660 in
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,
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. This was due to the fact that European farmers noticed a correlation between barberry and stem rust epidemics in wheat. The law banned the planting of barberry near wheat fields and was the first of its kind. The parasitic nature of stem rust was discovered in the 1700s. Two Italian scientists,
Fontana Fontana may refer to: Places Italy *Fontana Liri, comune in the Province of Frosinone *Fontanafredda, comune in the Province of Pordenone *Fontanarosa, comune in the Province of Avellino *Francavilla Fontana, comune in the Province of Brindisi * ...
and Tozzetti, first explained the stem rust fungus in wheat in 1767. Italian scientist
Giuseppe Maria Giovene Giuseppe Maria Giovene (23 January 1753 – 2 January 1837) was an Italian archpriest, naturalist, agronomist, geologist, meteorologist, entomologist and ichthyologist. elogio-storico, pag. 9, note 8 He is best known for his studies on the "nit ...
(1753–1837), in his work ''Lettera al dottor Cosimo Moschettini sulla ruggine'', also thoroughly studied the stem rust. Thirty years later it received its name, ''Puccinia graminis'', by
Persoon Christiaan Hendrik Persoon (1 February 1761 – 16 November 1836) was a German mycologist who made additions to Linnaeus' mushroom taxonomy. Early life Persoon was born in South Africa at the Cape of Good Hope, the third child of an immig ...
, and in 1854 brothers Louis René and
Charles Tulasne Charles Tulasne (5 September 1816 – 28 August 1884) was a French physician, mycologist and illustrator born in Langeais in the département of Indre-et-Loire. He received his medical doctorate in 1840 and practiced medicine in Paris until 18 ...
discovered the characteristic five-spore stage that is known in some stem rust species. The brothers were also able to make a connection between the red (urediniospore) and black (teliospore) spores as different stages within the life cycle of the same organism, but the rest of the stages remained unknown.
Anton de Bary Heinrich Anton de Bary (26 January 183119 January 1888) was a German surgeon, botanist, microbiologist, and mycologist (fungal systematics and physiology). He is considered a founding father of plant pathology (phytopathology) as well as the fou ...
later conducted experiments to observe the beliefs of European farmers regarding the relationship between the rust and barberry plants, and after connecting the basidiospores of the basidia stage to barberry, he also identified that the aeciospores in the aecia stage reinfect the wheat host. Upon de Bary's discovery of all five spore stages and their need for barberry as a host, John Craigie, a Canadian pathologist, identified the function of the
spermogonium {{Short pages monitor


''Sr9h''

Discovered and found to provide Ug99 resistance by Rouse ''et al.'', 2014. However Ug99
isolates {{About, , the linguistics term dealing with languages unrelated to any other language in the world, Language isolate, other uses, Isolate (disambiguation){{!Isolate Isolates is a term used in developmental psychology and family studies, to describ ...
from
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and
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, both in 2010, already had virulence when retested against this new gene. Both Rouse and Wessels ''et al.'', 2019 find the Ug99 resistance of cv. 'Matlabas' is probably due to this gene. Wessels finds it is present in less than 5% of breeding lines.


''Sr14''

''Sr14'' does not protect seedlings against TTKSK SB
ORCID The ORCID (; Open Researcher and Contributor ID) is a nonproprietary alphanumeric code to uniquely identify authors and contributors of scholarly communication as well as ORCID's website and services to look up authors and their bibliographic ...

0000-0002-4091-2608
but does provide moderate resistance at later stages. It is effective against TTKST.


''Sr22''

There is considerable variation among ''Sr22'' alleles, with some conferring resistance and some susceptibility. MAMH
ORCID The ORCID (; Open Researcher and Contributor ID) is a nonproprietary alphanumeric code to uniquely identify authors and contributors of scholarly communication as well as ORCID's website and services to look up authors and their bibliographic ...

0000-0002-8952-5684
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57189640847


''Sr27''

''Sr27'' is originally from rye ( Imperial Rye), now () widely found in
triticale Triticale (; × ''Triticosecale'') is a hybrid of wheat (''Triticum'') and rye (''Secale'') first bred in laboratories during the late 19th century in Scotland and Germany. Commercially available triticale is almost always a second-generation ...
and rarely in hexaploid wheat. Located on the 3A chromosome arm, originally from 3R. Virulence has been observed in field '' Pgs'' and in an artificial ''Pgt'' ''Pgs''. When successful, ''Sr27'' is among the few ''Sr''s that does not allow the underdeveloped
uredinia {{Short pages monitor