Romanian Front
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The Romanian Front ( ro, Frontul Românesc, FR) was a moderate
fascist Fascism is a far-right, authoritarian, ultra-nationalist political ideology and movement,: "extreme militaristic nationalism, contempt for electoral democracy and political and cultural liberalism, a belief in natural social hierarchy and the ...
party created in
Romania Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern, and Southeast Europe, Southeastern Europe. It borders Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hungary to the west, S ...
in 1935. Led by former
Prime Minister A prime minister, premier or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. Under those systems, a prime minister is ...
Alexandru Vaida-Voevod Alexandru Vaida-Voevod or Vaida-Voievod (27 February 1872 – 19 March 1950) was an Austro-Hungarian-born Romanian politician who was a supporter and promoter of the union of Transylvania (before 1920 part of Hungary) with the Romanian Old ...
, it originated as a right-wing splinter group from the mainstream
National Peasants' Party The National Peasants' Party (also known as the National Peasant Party or National Farmers' Party; ro, Partidul Național Țărănesc, or ''Partidul Național-Țărănist'', PNȚ) was an agrarian political party in the Kingdom of Romania. It w ...
(PNȚ). While in power, Vaida had an ambiguous approach to the
Iron Guard The Iron Guard ( ro, Garda de Fier) was a Romanian militant revolutionary fascist movement and political party founded in 1927 by Corneliu Zelea Codreanu as the Legion of the Archangel Michael () or the Legionnaire Movement (). It was stron ...
, and constructed his own radical ideology; the FR had a generally xenophobic program of positive discrimination, being implicitly (and eventually explicitly)
antisemitic Antisemitism (also spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism) is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite. Antisemitism is considered to be a form of racism. Ant ...
. It was subsumed to the policies of
King King is the title given to a male monarch in a variety of contexts. The female equivalent is queen regnant, queen, which title is also given to the queen consort, consort of a king. *In the context of prehistory, antiquity and contempora ...
Carol II Carol II (4 April 1953) was King of Romania from 8 June 1930 until his forced abdication on 6 September 1940. The eldest son of Ferdinand I, he became crown prince upon the death of his grand-uncle, King Carol I in 1914. He was the first of th ...
, maneuvering between the mainstream National Liberals, the PNȚ's left-wing, and the more radically fascist Guardists. Vaida tried to compete with the former two and appease the latter, assuming fascist trappings such as the black-shirted uniform. Like the Guard, he supported aligning Romania with the
Axis powers The Axis powers, ; it, Potenze dell'Asse ; ja, 枢軸国 ''Sūjikukoku'', group=nb originally called the Rome–Berlin Axis, was a military coalition that initiated World War II and fought against the Allies. Its principal members were ...
, though he also hoped to obtain their guarantees for
Greater Romania The term Greater Romania ( ro, România Mare) usually refers to the borders of the Kingdom of Romania in the interwar period, achieved after the Great Union. It also refers to a pan-nationalist idea. As a concept, its main goal is the creatio ...
's borders. The FR's lower echelons included Viorel Tilea and other opponents of Vaida's approach, who believed in Romania's attachments to the
League of Nations The League of Nations (french: link=no, Société des Nations ) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference th ...
and the
Little Entente The Little Entente was an alliance formed in 1920 and 1921 by Czechoslovakia, Romania and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (since 1929 Yugoslavia) with the purpose of common defense against Hungarian revanchism and the prospect of a ...
. Albeit invested with the king's trust and counting experienced politicians among its cadres, the FR was always a minor force in Romanian politics, and was habitually defeated in by-elections. Its peak influence was recorded during the local elections of June 1937, when it emerged as the second most popular party in
Ilfov County Ilfov () is the county that surrounds Bucharest, the capital of Romania. It used to be largely rural, but, after the fall of Communism, many of the county's villages and communes developed into high-income commuter towns, which act like suburbs ...
. Early on, it was courted by other radical groups, narrowly failing to absorb the National Agrarian Party. It came to depend on the more powerful National Christian Party, with which it formed a political alliance in 1935. Called "National Bloc", it too failed to produce a full merger between its components, as Vaida had qualms about the unchecked Germanophilia of his partners; his
Romanianization Romanianization is the series of policies aimed toward ethnic assimilation implemented by the Romanian authorities during the 20th and 21st century. The most noteworthy policies were those aimed at the Hungarian minority in Romania, Jews and as ...
project was also regarded as too mild by National Christian standards. In later years, the FR made several sustained efforts to reunite with, or to absorb, the "centrist" wing of the PNȚ. The FR's hostility toward successive National Liberal governments gave way to cooperation after the latter also embraced ethnic discrimination. This rapprochement eventually resulted in a cartel, formed by the two parties during the 1937 general election. This controversial move bled the FR of members and supporters, including a massive defection by D. R. Ioanițescu and his supporters. After the country witnessed a descent into political violence with clashes between monarch and the Guardists, the Front allowed itself to be absorbed into Carol's sole legal party, the National Renaissance Front in 1938. From 1940, Vaida served as the Front's Chairman.


History


Origins

The Front had its roots in the second and third governments of Vaida-Voevod (1932 and 1933), which were characterized by growing levels of antisemitism and discussions regarding the possibility of barring
Jews Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...
from a number of public posts (
Jewish quota A Jewish quota was a discriminatory racial quota designed to limit or deny access for Jews to various institutions. Such quotas were widespread in the 19th and 20th centuries in developed countries and frequently present in higher education, o ...
s). Adrian Niculescu
"O lecție a istoriei (II)"
in ''
Observator Cultural ''Observator Cultural'' (meaning "The Cultural Observer" in English) is a weekly literary magazine based in Bucharest, Romania Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe. ...
'', Nr. 72, July 2001
As an ideologue shaped by the
Transylvania Transylvania ( ro, Ardeal or ; hu, Erdély; german: Siebenbürgen) is a historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and south its natural border is the Carpathian Mountains, and to the west the A ...
n school of nationalism, Vaida-Voevod found inspiration in the work of economic antisemites and authoritarians such as
Karl Lueger Karl Lueger (; 24 October 1844 – 10 March 1910) was an Austrian politician, mayor of Vienna, and leader and founder of the Austrian Christian Social Party. He is credited with the transformation of the city of Vienna into a modern city. The pop ...
and Aurel Popovici. In the late 1920s, his views were shaped by
eugenics Eugenics ( ; ) is a fringe set of beliefs and practices that aim to improve the genetic quality of a human population. Historically, eugenicists have attempted to alter human gene pools by excluding people and groups judged to be inferior o ...
and
biopolitics Biopolitics refers to the political relations between the administration or regulation of the life of species and a locality's populations, where politics and law evaluate life based on perceived constants and traits. French philosopher Michel F ...
, leading him to demand the state-managed preservation of a pure peasant stock, against "biological competition". The antisemitic measures were taken to the background of agitation by another homegrown fascist movement, the Iron Guard, which Vaida-Voevod had initially protected and supported in his terms as
Interior Minister An interior minister (sometimes called a minister of internal affairs or minister of home affairs) is a cabinet official position that is responsible for internal affairs, such as public security, civil registration and identification, emergency ...
(from 1928). Specifically against the Guard and other violent organizations, Vaida-Voevod passed laws limiting political freedoms and establishing curfews (although he allowed the
Transylvanian Saxons The Transylvanian Saxons (german: Siebenbürger Sachsen; Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjer Såksen''; ro, Sași ardeleni, sași transilvăneni/transilvani; hu, Erdélyi szászok) are a people of German ethnicity who settled in Transylvania ( ...
to form ''
Sturmabteilung The (; SA; literally "Storm Detachment") was the original paramilitary wing of the Nazi Party. It played a significant role in Adolf Hitler's rise to power in the 1920s and 1930s. Its primary purposes were providing protection for Nazi ralli ...
'' units which targeted Jews). Vaida was in turn attacked by the Guardist press as a "
Freemason Freemasonry or Masonry refers to fraternal organisations that trace their origins to the local guilds of stonemasons that, from the end of the 13th century, regulated the qualifications of stonemasons and their interaction with authorities ...
", even though, Vaida claimed, his attachment to the
Lodge Lodge is originally a term for a relatively small building, often associated with a larger one. Lodge or The Lodge may refer to: Buildings and structures Specific * The Lodge (Australia), the official Canberra residence of the Prime Minist ...
was purely formal and instrumental. This issue had been highlighted during the 1920s by A. C. Cuza's
National-Christian Defense League The National-Christian Defense League ( ro, Liga Apărării Național Creștine, LANC) was a far-right political party of Romania formed by A. C. Cuza. Origins The LANC had its roots in the National Christian Union, formed in 1922 by Cuza and th ...
(LANC). According to its manifestos, "the Freemason Vaida" had acquiesced to the
Minority Treaties The Minority Treaties are treaty, treaties, League of Nations mandates, and unilateral declarations made by countries applying for membership in the League of Nations that conferred basic rights on all the inhabitants of the country without disti ...
, which "delivered us, arms tied, legs tied, to the Kikes". Another accusation brought up against Vaida was his partnership in Jewish-owned businesses, in particular the Marmorosch Blank Bank. In defending himself and reclaiming a similar discourse, Vaida argued that his brief experience with the Lodge had cemented in him the belief that Masons were "Jewified"."Ardealul s'a încadrat pe linia națională. Intrunirea de la Dej", in ''
Gazeta Transilvaniei ''Gazeta de Transilvania'' was the first Romanian-language newspaper to be published in Transylvania. It was founded by George Bariț in 1838 in Brașov. It played a very important role in the awakening of the Romanian national conscience in Tran ...
'', Issue 60/1936, pp. 1–2
Rival politicians regarded Vaida as a man who secretly cultivated the Guard, and who thus refrained from intensifying its persecution. This accusation was voiced by Gheorghe Beza,
Armand Călinescu Armand Călinescu (4 June 1893 – 21 September 1939) was a Romanian economist and politician, who served as 39th Prime Minister from March 1939 until his assassination six months later. He was a staunch opponent of the fascist Iron Guard and m ...
, Victor Iamandi"Un interesant expozeu al d-lui V. Iamandi. Ministrul ieșean a combătut haosul din concepția d-lui Vaida-Voevod", in ''
Adevărul ''Adevărul'' (; meaning "The Truth", formerly spelled ''Adevĕrul'') is a Romanian daily newspaper, based in Bucharest. Founded in Iași, in 1871, and reestablished in 1888, in Bucharest, it was the main left-wing press venue to be published du ...
'', May 20, 1936, p. 5
and Victor Moldovan. At the time, Vaida had emerged as the leader of a distinct, radical-right, faction of the PNȚ. He backed the increasingly authoritarian
King King is the title given to a male monarch in a variety of contexts. The female equivalent is queen regnant, queen, which title is also given to the queen consort, consort of a king. *In the context of prehistory, antiquity and contempora ...
Carol II Carol II (4 April 1953) was King of Romania from 8 June 1930 until his forced abdication on 6 September 1940. The eldest son of Ferdinand I, he became crown prince upon the death of his grand-uncle, King Carol I in 1914. He was the first of th ...
, while the moderates, under
Iuliu Maniu Iuliu Maniu (; 8 January 1873 – 5 February 1953) was an Austro-Hungarian-born lawyer and Romanian politician. He was a leader of the National Party of Transylvania and Banat before and after World War I, playing an important role in the U ...
, supported
liberal democracy Liberal democracy is the combination of a liberal political ideology that operates under an indirect democratic form of government. It is characterized by elections between multiple distinct political parties, a separation of powers into ...
, calling the right-wing "extra-constitutional". For his part, Vaida wanted the group purged of remnants from the old Peasants' Party. Party unity was maintained courtesy of Maniu's Transylvanian supporters, including a centrist group led by Zaharia Boilă and
Corneliu Coposu Corneliu (Cornel) Coposu () (20 May 1914 – 11 November 1995) was a Christian Democratic and liberal conservative Romanian politician, the founder of the Christian Democratic National Peasants' Party ( ro, Partidul Național Țărănesc Creșt ...
. Writing at the time, the left-wing radical journalist Petre Constantinescu-Iași claimed that the conflict also reflected differences in global orientation: Maniu's
Francophile A Francophile, also known as Gallophile, is a person who has a strong affinity towards any or all of the French language, French history, French culture and/or French people. That affinity may include France itself or its history, language, cuisin ...
support base against Vaida's
Anglo Anglo is a prefix indicating a relation to, or descent from, the Angles, England, English culture, the English people or the English language, such as in the term ''Anglosphere''. It is often used alone, somewhat loosely, to refer to peopl ...
Germanophilia. The latter, he proposed, was aiming for "the complete, vigorous and definitive, fascization" of Romania. Vaida still viewed himself as a moderate Francophile, chiding other figures for being in complete "subservience to France"; he also rejected the
League of Nations The League of Nations (french: link=no, Société des Nations ) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference th ...
as a "spawn of the Jews". Overall, he declared his sympathy for
André Tardieu André Pierre Gabriel Amédée Tardieu (; 22 September 1876 – 15 September 1945) was three times Prime Minister of France (3 November 1929 – 17 February 1930; 2 March – 4 December 1930; 20 February – 10 May 1932) and a dominant figure of ...
and his French conservatism. His praise for a "Christian France" puzzled commentators, who noted that this political culture no longer existed in the form imagined by Vaida,Liviu P. Nasta, "Imperativele politicii noastre externe. Cu Franța sau cu Germania hitleristă?", in ''
Adevărul ''Adevărul'' (; meaning "The Truth", formerly spelled ''Adevĕrul'') is a Romanian daily newspaper, based in Bucharest. Founded in Iași, in 1871, and reestablished in 1888, in Bucharest, it was the main left-wing press venue to be published du ...
'', May 20, 1936, p. 1
or that it was reduced to the "invalid" ''
Croix-de-Feu , logo = Croix de Feu.svg , logo_size = 200px , leader1_title = President , leader1_name = François de La Rocque , foundation = 11 November 1927 , dissolution = 10 January 1936 , successor = F ...
''. Following the German election of March 1933, the Premier played down the
Nazi Party The Nazi Party, officially the National Socialist German Workers' Party (german: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or NSDAP), was a far-right political party in Germany active between 1920 and 1945 that created and supported t ...
's victory and its significance for antisemitic agitation in Romania. Addressing the Romanian public on May 10, he declared that
Adolf Hitler Adolf Hitler (; 20 April 188930 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician who was dictator of Germany from 1933 until his death in 1945. He rose to power as the leader of the Nazi Party, becoming the chancellor in 1933 and the ...
's social program was less advanced than what the PNȚ had to offer. He also referred to the LANC as an older, "wiser", and more "adaptable" version of Hitler's movement. By November 1933, the two wings of the PNȚ were fighting each other out in the open, notably so at a riot in
Sibiu Sibiu ( , , german: link=no, Hermannstadt , la, Cibinium, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Härmeschtat'', hu, Nagyszeben ) is a city in Romania, in the historical region of Transylvania. Located some north-west of Bucharest, the city straddles the Ci ...
. The king encouraged such dissent, hoping to weaken his rivals, but also finding that Vaida-Voevod's politics were largely compatible with his own. Nevertheless, the government found it hard to tackle the effects of the
Great Depression The Great Depression (19291939) was an economic shock that impacted most countries across the world. It was a period of economic depression that became evident after a major fall in stock prices in the United States. The economic contagio ...
, and was brutal in its handling of the Grivița workers' strike. The growing rift inside the government party, but also evidence of the
Prime Minister A prime minister, premier or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. Under those systems, a prime minister is ...
's complicity with the Guard, caused additional dissatisfaction among sections of the electorate. The cabinet ultimately fell when the PNȚ's left-wing published a pamphlet against the king, which the latter used as a pretext for demanding Vaida-Voevod's resignation. The National Liberal Party (PNL), imposing itself on the king with the threat of "civic resistance", was returned to power, and Ion G. Duca became Prime Minister. In late 1933, Duca, who organized a clampdown against the Guard and was assassinated by one of its
death squads A death squad is an armed group whose primary activity is carrying out extrajudicial killings or forced disappearances as part of political repression, genocide, ethnic cleansing, or revolutionary terror. Except in rare cases in which they are f ...
, and the cabinet came to be led by Gheorghe Tătărescu. In the wake of the killing, Vaida spoke favorably of Iron Guard men who were on trial for sedition. He also alleged that the murder was somehow tied to Duca's inner-party rivalry with Iamandi, an allegation that Iamadi dismissed as "incoherent and illogical". Vaida was presumed to be insincere when crediting such rumors: according to Beza's account, Codreanu distanced himself from the team of assassins only after Vaida advised him to do so.


Emergence

Vaida's dissidence was immediately useful for the king: it absorbed Maniu's attention and toned down PNȚ attempts to restore the constitutional order. According to historian Petre Țurlea, Vaida was "supported by the king, though not as much as he would have liked".Țurlea (2011), p. 182 Increasingly marginalized by his party colleagues, in January 1934 Vaida announced that he would not resign, but "waited to be thrown out". He also threatened that his ouster would come with "fireworks". His lead was followed by Viorel Tilea and Eduard Mirto, both of whom attacked Maniu in private conversations or in public speeches. During February, the various PNȚ factions made a final attempt at reconciliation, with their leaders meeting at
Bistrița (; german: link=no, Bistritz, archaic , Transylvanian Saxon: , hu, Beszterce) is the capital city of Bistrița-Năsăud County, in northern Transylvania, Romania. It is situated on the Bistrița River. The city has a population of approxima ...
. Tătărescu returned at the helm of a new cabinet, despite Vaida's hopes that the king would prefer an alliance of the far-right parties, including his own faction. Over the following months, Vaida tested Maniu's resolve by instigating another conflict in
Timiș-Torontal County Timiș-Torontal was a county ( ro, județ) in the Kingdom of Romania. Its capital was Timișoara. The territory of the county had been transferred to Romania in 1920 from the Kingdom of Hungary under the Treaty of Trianon. Geography Timiș-Toro ...
. Supported by the PNȚ newspaper ''Țara'', he fought for the local party presidency against Maniu's favorite, Sever Bocu. Vaida was able to win the seat in June, but, at a September summit in
Sovata Sovata (; hu, Szováta; Hungarian pronunciation: ) is a town in Mureș County, Transylvania, Romania. Three villages are administered by the town: Căpeți (''Kopac''), Ilieși (''Illyésmező''), and Săcădat (''Szakadát''). In 2004, the vill ...
, the PNȚ decided to depose him. Attempting to regain control of the electoral base, Vaida took up radicalism in the social sphere as well, promising peasants that he would bring about a new land reform. These policies got him expelled from the PNȚ in early 1935, leaving that party to be controlled by left-wing agrarianists. The "xenophobic and antidemocratic", "antisemitic radical right-wing", Romanian Front was born from this split. It began to function in April 1935 (officially: on March 12), declaring itself ready to serve the king's wishes, and counting on support from traditional PNȚ voters to become the catch-all far-right group. By mid March, when his speech at
Oradea Oradea (, , ; german: Großwardein ; hu, Nagyvárad ) is a city in Romania, located in Crișana, a sub-region of Transylvania. The seat of Bihor County, Oradea is one of the most important economic, social and cultural centers in the western par ...
drew in an "immense attendance", Vaida-Voevod had organized "separate Vaidist sections" in 60
counties A county is a geographic region of a country used for administrative or other purposesChambers Dictionary, L. Brookes (ed.), 2005, Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd, Edinburgh in certain modern nations. The term is derived from the Old French ...
. The split exasperated other PNȚ wings, and resulted in more clashes: the National Peasantist paramilitary guard, or '' Voinici'', staged an attack on Vaida's newspaper, ''
Gazeta Transilvaniei ''Gazeta de Transilvania'' was the first Romanian-language newspaper to be published in Transylvania. It was founded by George Bariț in 1838 in Brașov. It played a very important role in the awakening of the Romanian national conscience in Tran ...
''.Veiga, p. 215 By 1937, the Front had set up another Transylvanian newspaper, called ''Ofensiva Română'' and published from
Cluj ; hu, kincses város) , official_name=Cluj-Napoca , native_name= , image_skyline= , subdivision_type1 = County , subdivision_name1 = Cluj County , subdivision_type2 = Status , subdivision_name2 = County seat , settlement_type = City , ...
."Fuzionează mihalachiștii cu vaidiștii? Șefii spun că nu – ziarele că da...", in ''Granița. Ziar Politic Național-Liberal'', Issue 10/1937, p. 2 Vaidists took over the PNȚ newspaper of
Constanța Constanța (, ; ; rup, Custantsa; bg, Кюстенджа, Kyustendzha, or bg, Констанца, Konstantsa, label=none; el, Κωνστάντζα, Kōnstántza, or el, Κωνστάντια, Kōnstántia, label=none; tr, Köstence), histo ...
, ''Aurora Dobrogei'', and founded their own regional organs: ''Basarabia Creștină'' (
Chișinău Chișinău ( , , ), also known as Kishinev (russian: Кишинёв, r=Kishinjóv ), is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Moldova. The city is Moldova's main industrial and commercial center, and is located in the middle of the ...
), ''Biruința'' (
Botoșani Botoșani () is the capital city of Botoșani County, in the northern part of Moldavia, Romania. Today, it is best known as the birthplace of many celebrated Romanians, including Mihai Eminescu, Nicolae Iorga and Grigore Antipa. Origin of the na ...
), and ''Chemarea Noastră'' (
Ismail Ishmael ''Ismaḗl''; Classical/Qur'anic Arabic: إِسْمَٰعِيْل; Modern Standard Arabic: إِسْمَاعِيْل ''ʾIsmāʿīl''; la, Ismael was the first son of Abraham, the common patriarch of the Abrahamic religions; and is cons ...
). At
Piatra Neamț Piatra Neamț (; german: Kreuzburg an der Bistrița (Siret), Bistritz; hu, Karácsonkő) is the capital city of Neamț County, in the historical region of Western Moldavia, in northeastern Romania. Because of its privileged location in the Easter ...
, N. Borș put out the affiliate paper ''Frontul Românesc Neamț''."''Frontul Românesc Neamț''; Comerțul cu băuturi spirtoase (Glasul cifrelor)", in ''Avântul'', Issue 133, April 26, 1935, p. 3 The new party included Vaida's two sons, Aurel and Mircea, alongside Tilea,
Sever Dan Sever may refer to: Places in Portugal * Sever (Santa Marta de Penaguião), a civil parish in the municipality of Santa Marta de Penaguião * , a civil parish in Moimenta da Beira Municipality * Sever do Vouga Municipality, a municipality in th ...
,
Virgil Potârcă Publius Vergilius Maro (; traditional dates 15 October 7021 September 19 BC), usually called Virgil or Vergil ( ) in English, was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period. He composed three of the most famous poems in Latin literature: th ...
, and Voicu Nițescu.
Gheorghe Mironescu Gheorghe G. Mironescu, commonly known as G. G. Mironescu (January 28, 1874 – October 8, 1949), was a Romanian politician, member of the National Peasants' Party (PNȚ), who served as Prime Minister of Romania for two terms. Biography Born in ...
(himself a former PNȚ prime minister) became a founding member on March 15, 1935, when he published an open letter supporting Vaida. The PNȚ then shunned him as an enemy of "peasant democracy". A while after, the FR registered in its ranks a prominent PNL defector, Constantin Angelescu. A wave of disgruntled PNȚ cadres also signed up for the FR, including Mirto,Ionuț Butoi, "'Tânăra generație' în haine de funcționar. Cazul Mircea Vulcănescu", in ''Anuarul Institutului de Istorie George Barițiu din Cluj-Napoca. Series Humanistica'', Vol. XII, 2014, p. 10 Aurel Vlad, D. R. Ioanițescu, and
Gheorghe Ionescu-Sisești Gheorghe Ionescu-Sisești (16 October 1885–4 June 1967) was a Romanian agronomer. He was elected titular member of the Romanian Academy in 1936,Orăștie Orăștie (; german: link=no, Broos, hu, Szászváros, la, Saxopolis) is a city in Hunedoara County, south-western Transylvania, central Romania. History 7th–9th century – On the site of an old swamp was a human settlement, no ...
chapter, organized by Vlad, included the nationalist priest Ioan Moța. Other PNȚ colleagues from Vaida's native Transylvania also joined the FR; major figures include
Emil Hațieganu Emil Hațieganu (December 9, 1878—May 13, 1959) was a Romanian politician and jurist, a prominent member of the Romanian National Party (PNR) and of its successor, the National Peasants' Party (PNȚ); he was physician Iuliu Hațieganu's brother. ...
, Dionisie Roman, Gavril Iuga, and Teodor Bohățiel. Marin Pop
"Emil Hațieganu, deputat al circumscripției electorale Hida"
in ''Caiete Silvane'', June 2015
The Front's branch in
Brașov County Brașov County () is a county (județ) of Romania, in Transylvania. Its capital city is Brașov. The county incorporates within its boundaries most of the Medieval "lands" (''țări'') Burzenland and Făgăraș. Name In Hungarian, it is kno ...
, supervised by Nițescu, also had among its members Victor Braniște and Iosif Blaga. On April 20, 1935 the FR established its own group in the
lower chamber A lower house is one of two chambers of a bicameral legislature, the other chamber being the upper house. Despite its official position "below" the upper house, in many legislatures worldwide, the lower house has come to wield more power or oth ...
. On that day, five deputies of the Peasants' Party–Lupu, including Ioan Modreanu of
Someș The Someș (; hu, Szamos; german: Somesch or ''Samosch'') is a left tributary of the Tisza in Hungary and Romania. It has a length of (including its source river Someșul Mare), of which 50 km are in Hungary.Constanța Constanța (, ; ; rup, Custantsa; bg, Кюстенджа, Kyustendzha, or bg, Констанца, Konstantsa, label=none; el, Κωνστάντζα, Kōnstántza, or el, Κωνστάντια, Kōnstántia, label=none; tr, Köstence), histo ...
, and Alex. D. Rotta of Cetatea Albă, affiliated with "Vaidism". Other members of note were Savian Bădulescu (former
Mayor of Bucharest The Mayor of Bucharest ( ro, Primarul General al Municipiului București), sometimes known as the General Mayor, is the head of the Bucharest City Hall in Bucharest, Romania, which is responsible for citywide affairs, such as the water system, the ...
), Coriolan Baltă, Ion Buzdugan, Romulus Cândea, and Ioan Gr. Periețeanu. The Front's section in
Dolj Dolj County (; originally meant ''Dol(no)- Jiu'', "lower Jiu", as opposed to ''Gorj'' (''upper Jiu'')) is a county (județ) of Romania on the border with Bulgaria, in Oltenia, with the capital city at Craiova. Demographics In 2011, the count ...
was established by a former PNȚ deputy, Nicolae C. Iovipale;Pătrașcu, p. 154 the one in neighboring
Gorj Gorj County () is a county (județ) of Romania, in Oltenia, with its capital city at Târgu Jiu. ''Gorj'' comes from the Slavic ''Gor(no)-'' Jiu (“upper Jiu”), in contrast with Dolj (“lower Jiu”). Demographics In 2011, the county had a ...
, which is attested fom October 1935, was ran by Adrian Brudariu, who split his activity between Gorj and Timiș-Torontal. For the previous two years, Brudariu had led a minor, and nominally left-wing, Independent Peasantist Party. The FR was soon joined by professors such as George Moroianu and Mihai Șerban, and had an active cell at the
University of Iași The Alexandru Ioan Cuza University (Romanian: ''Universitatea „Alexandru Ioan Cuza"''; acronym: UAIC) is a public university located in Iași, Romania. Founded by an 1860 decree of Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza, under whom the former Academia Mih ...
, under Petre Dragomirescu.Dan, "Vaidiștii din Iași sprijină lista liberală. Dl. prof. P. Dragomirescu candidează la colegiul universitar", in ''Opinia'', December 2, 1937, p. 3Al., "Atitudinea politică a 'Frontului Românesc'. Reorganizarea cadrelor. — Punctul de vedere al d-nui Vaida. Participarea la alegeri. Câteva lămuriri ale d-lui prof. P. Dragomirescu", in ''Opinia'', Febryary 1, 1938, p. 1 Author N. Porsenna was also a member by mid 1936."'Frontul Românesc' și part. naț.-creștin depun listă comună în alegerile județene din Ilfov", in ''
Gazeta Transilvaniei ''Gazeta de Transilvania'' was the first Romanian-language newspaper to be published in Transylvania. It was founded by George Bariț in 1838 in Brașov. It played a very important role in the awakening of the Romanian national conscience in Tran ...
'', Issue 70/1936, p. 2
Estimates suggest that only some 10%Mezarescu, p. 37 or 15% of PNȚ cadres followed Vaida. The group recruited among newcomers to politics: in late 1937, Tilea, as leader of the FR's
Sibiu County Sibiu County () is a county ( ro, județ) of Romania, in the historical region of Transylvania. Its county seat ( ro, reședință de județ) is the namesake town of Sibiu (german: Hermannstadt). Name In Hungarian, it is known as ''Szeben m ...
branch, welcomed Generals Spiridon Mihăilescu and Ștefan Orescovici into its ranks."Tactica de luptă a 'Frontului românesc'. Motivele cari au dus la încheierea cartelului electoral cu guvernul. Declarațiile d-lui V. V. Tilea", in ''
Curentul ''Curentul'' is a Romanian newspaper, based in Bucharest Bucharest ( , ; ro, București ) is the capital and largest city of Romania, as well as its cultural, industrial, and financial centre. It is located in the southeast of the coun ...
'', December 8, 1937, p. 7
Overall, in the academic world, some 10 professionals rallied with the FR. This was ahead of the Guard, but well below other parties on the right. The schism actually contributed to disciplining the National Peasantist elites: emerging as the new party president, but feeling threatened by Maniu's potential return, Ion Mihalache hinted that he would expel the entire Transylvanian wing at any sign of revolt. The FR claimed that the "Masonic" establishment was also sabotaging its influence within both Romanian churches,
Eastern Orthodox Eastern Orthodoxy, also known as Eastern Orthodox Christianity, is one of the three main branches of Chalcedonian Christianity, alongside Catholicism and Protestantism. Like the Pentarchy of the first millennium, the mainstream (or " canonical ...
and
Eastern Catholic The Eastern Catholic Churches or Oriental Catholic Churches, also called the Eastern-Rite Catholic Churches, Eastern Rite Catholicism, or simply the Eastern Churches, are 23 Eastern Christian autonomous (''sui iuris'') particular churches of ...
. According to Vaida, Orthodox Patriarch Miron Cristea and Cluj Bishop
Iuliu Hossu Iuliu Hossu (30 January 1885 – 28 May 1970) was a Romanian Greek-Catholic prelate who served as the Bishop of Cluj-Gherla. Pope Paul VI elevated Hossu to the rank of cardinal ''in pectore'', that is, secretly, in 1969 but did not publish his ...
were both sympathizers of the Front.


Vaida's platform


Main tenets

The FR is often assumed to have been insincere or vague about its political radicalism—or, according to Iamandi, simply "chaotic". Analysts have dubbed it a "semi-fascist" or "profascist" party, one undecided about whether to support a fully-fledged dictatorship or a milder "national democracy". One theory is that the FR was born from collusion between Vaida, Carol, and
Police The police are a Law enforcement organization, constituted body of Law enforcement officer, persons empowered by a State (polity), state, with the aim to law enforcement, enforce the law, to ensure the safety, health and possessions of citize ...
chief
Gavrilă Marinescu Gabriel Marinescu (first name also Gavril or Gavrilă; November 7, 1886 – November 26/27, 1940) was a Romanian general. Born in Tigveni, Argeș County, he was the son of a teacher. He attended Saint Sava National College in Bucharest, the school ...
, as an attempt to divide and subdue the extremist vote. The party program dictated that elections were the cause of Romania's political problems, and therefore operated on the "authoritative criterion", including the nomination of the party elite "by the supreme leader"; the cadres were only entrusted with "deepening the penetration of the ideology ..among the masses". Vaida, who declared publicly that he had in him "a spark from Hitler's soul", imitated Italian fascism,
Nazism Nazism ( ; german: Nazismus), the common name in English for National Socialism (german: Nationalsozialismus, ), is the far-right totalitarian political ideology and practices associated with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) i ...
, and the Guard itself at a primarily visual and declarative level. The authoritarian party leader, saluted by his followers with chants of ''Ura Vaida'' ("Hurrah for Vaida"), commanded over a network of watches, '' centuriae'', and legions, with a political uniform consisting of black shirts. From June 1935, the Front's chapter in Constanța County also had a youth paramilitary wing, called ''Panduri'' (in honor of the 1821 Wallachian rebels). One of the main points of FR policy was Vaida-Voevod's idea of minority quotas, which he termed the ''numerus Valachicus'': the share in economy and culture "in proportion to he Romanians'ethnic number." One left-wing columnist at '' Lupta'' suggested that some of Vaida's own followers were "stunned" by its discriminatory undertones, and had to accommodate it with their "personal obligation" toward Vaida;R. P., "Noua ofensivă a d-lui Vaida. — Cum se poate încurca un om politic", in '' Lupta'', April 1, 1936, p. 1 another columnist argued that some of "Mr Vaida's partisans ad beenardent and committed philosemites" until 1934.Deșcă, "Granate. Mai multă apropiere", in '' Lupta'', June 17, 1936, p. 1 Shaped by such new imperatives, the FR program emphasized that "there must be no policy of hatred towards the minorities", adding: "an end must be put to the privileged situation resulting from the past." As noted in 1935 by the Bulgarian-Romanian paper ''Dobrudzhanski Glas'', the proposal effectively meant that the FR could never recruit members from among the minorities. Reportedly, in mid 1935 the FR attempted a rapprochement with the Jewish Party, which was notoriously opposed to
Jewish assimilation Jewish assimilation ( he, התבוללות, ''hitbolelut'') refers either to the gradual cultural assimilation and social integration of Jews in their surrounding culture or to an ideological program in the age of emancipation promoting conf ...
. An assimilationist Jewish leader,
Wilhelm Filderman Wilhelm Filderman (last name also spelled Fieldermann; 14 November 1882 – 1963) was a lawyer and the leader of the Romanian-Jewish community between 1919 and 1947; in addition, he was a representative of the Jews in the Romanian parliament. Ea ...
, Vaida was producing messages calling for "collaboration" with exponents of right-wing
Zionism Zionism ( he, צִיּוֹנוּת ''Tsiyyonut'' after '' Zion'') is a nationalist movement that espouses the establishment of, and support for a homeland for the Jewish people centered in the area roughly corresponding to what is known in Je ...
, while he "condemns the Regat's Jews for joining ainstream Romanianpolitical parties." ''Numerus Valachicus'' replicated Guardist tactics, but did so in a positive discrimination manner, one not ostensibly antisemitic. However, ''Gazeta Transilvaniei'' put our numerous articles which concentrated on maligning Jewish "colonialists", claiming for instance that they controlled 80% of Romania's industry, with firms it described as "parasitical". Calculations by the Front's press had it that Jews and
Hungarians Hungarians, also known as Magyars ( ; hu, magyarok ), are a nation and  ethnic group native to Hungary () and historical Hungarian lands who share a common culture, history, ancestry, and language. The Hungarian language belongs to the ...
were overrepresented in the liquor business: although Romanians made up a majority of retailers, their suppliers were still largely non-Romanian. Overall, radical antisemites were reserved about Vaidist proposals. The Iron Guard's "Captain",
Corneliu Zelea Codreanu Corneliu Zelea Codreanu (; born Corneliu Codreanu, according to his birth certificate; 13 September 1899 – 30 November 1938) was a Romanian politician of the far right, the founder and charismatic leader of the Iron Guard or ''The Legion o ...
, wrote that: "if Vaida was ever antisemitic, he was one of the old school".Berți, p. 148 During that interval, the Guard's intellectuals also gave mixed reactions to the FR's antisemitic program. Sociologist Traian Brăileanu cautiously commended the FR for wanting to break away from "kike imperialism" and "kike finance", while philosopher
Nae Ionescu Nae Ionescu (, born Nicolae C. Ionescu; – 15 March 1940) was a Romanian philosopher, logician, mathematician, professor, and journalist. Near the end of his career, he became known for his antisemitism and devotion to far right politics, in t ...
referred to the ''numerus Valachicus'' as "a platform for agitation, not at all a political program." Within the political mainstream, the ''numerus'' advocacy was seen as exaggerated, but not unworkable. As acknowledged by Vaida himself, Maniu was vexed by educational quotas, but favored curbing the influence of "foreigners" and adopting
trust-busting Competition law is the field of law that promotes or seeks to maintain market competition by regulating anti-competitive conduct by companies. Competition law is implemented through public and private enforcement. It is also known as antitrust l ...
legislation. Other figures were more skeptical of the program. Dante Gherman, a People's Party supporter, argued that the economic over-representation of minorities was not a matter to be addressed new laws, but simply required old laws being properly enforced. As noted at the time by Vaida's rival,
Constantin Argetoianu Constantin Argetoianu ( – 6 February 1955) was a Romanian politician, one of the best-known personalities of interwar Greater Romania, who served as the Prime Minister between 28 September and 23 November 1939. His memoirs, ''Memorii. Pentr ...
, the issue of enforced discrimination was paradoxical, since minorities were largely absent from the state apparatus; introducing quotas would have meant "opening up such careers to a significant number of Jews." That practical matter did not dissuade the "scoundrels of our cities", "the Jew-eaters and extollers of racism", from campaigning around the concept. However, Vaida viewed Argetoianu as a marginal ally. Within the FR itself, Potârcă also objected to Vaida's ideas on ethnic protection, viewing them as exaggerated.Rădulescu, p. 64 When
bar association A bar association is a professional association of lawyers as generally organized in countries following the Anglo-American types of jurisprudence. The word bar is derived from the old English/European custom of using a physical railing to se ...
s began voting their own "
Romanianization Romanianization is the series of policies aimed toward ethnic assimilation implemented by the Romanian authorities during the 20th and 21st century. The most noteworthy policies were those aimed at the Hungarian minority in Romania, Jews and as ...
", the FR's Iovipale criticized a complete purge, proposing that up to 4% of the legal practices could still go to non-Romanians. The group was otherwise compatible with the Iron Guard: both were seen by Guard sympathizer
Petre Țuțea Petre Țuțea (; 6 October 1902 – 3 December 1991) was a Romanian philosopher, journalist, and economist. Biography Early years and the Legionary Movement Petre Țuțea was born in the village of Boteni, Muscel County (now in Argeș Cou ...
as exponents of the "revolutionary right", destined to blend together into "a single party or a state party." As noted by his colleague
Mihail Sebastian Mihail Sebastian (; born Iosif Mendel Hechter; October 18, 1907 – May 29, 1945) was a Romanian playwright, essayist, journalist and novelist. Life Sebastian was born to a Jewish family in Brăila, the son of Mendel and Clara Hechter. After ...
, Ionescu took part in agitating for Vaida, and argued that the Front's alliance with the Guard and their common victory over Tătărescu were still inevitable. Monarchist writer Ion Sân-Giorgiu claimed that Ionescu was sponsoring the FR with money that ultimately originated in
Nazi Germany Nazi Germany (lit. "National Socialist State"), ' (lit. "Nazi State") for short; also ' (lit. "National Socialist Germany") (officially known as the German Reich from 1933 until 1943, and the Greater German Reich from 1943 to 1945) was ...
, and actively trying to create tensions between Vaida and Carol. Allegedly, Ionescu also intervened to save the FR's Mirto when the latter was found to be running a smuggling business.


Socioeconomics

In his speeches, Vaida declared that fascism was primarily a natural development of the "national-social ideas"; he claimed primordiality for Romanian nationalism, which, he believed, had been jolted into existence by the Transylvanian revolt of 1784."Declarațiile d-lui Vaida la Alba-Iulia", in ''
Gazeta Transilvaniei ''Gazeta de Transilvania'' was the first Romanian-language newspaper to be published in Transylvania. It was founded by George Bariț in 1838 in Brașov. It played a very important role in the awakening of the Romanian national conscience in Tran ...
'', Issue 81/1937, pp. 1–2
The Front's spokesman, Ioan Alexandru Bran-Lemeny, declared the party to be pragmatic rather than ideological, noting that it did not deal in "abstraction"—and that Maniu's belief in the "peasant state" was a "hybrid, unworkable construct". Bran-Lemeny acknowledged instead that his group disapproved of "some methods employed by German national-socialism", but challenged his adversaries to view fascism and Nazism as more economically efficient than liberalism. Another such plea was issued by FR member C. I. Odor, who argued that "Romanian organization", modeled on Nazism, fascism, and the '' Estado Novo'', would triumph against "alienism, above all
gainst Against may refer to: * ''Against'' (album), 1998 album by Brazilian metal band Sepultura ** "Against" (song) the title track song from the Sepultura album *Against (American band) Against (styled as AgainST) were an American crossover thras ...
Judaism". While he exercised supreme command within the FR, Vaida conceded that the state needed to be placed under the "proud king" with his sweeping powers; he chided Maniu for favoring a
crowned republic A crowned republic, also known as a monarchial republic, is an informal term that has been used to refer to a system of monarchy where the monarch's role may be seen as almost entirely ceremonial and where nearly all of the royal prerogatives are ...
. ''Numerus Valachicus'' was thus seen by the FR's leader as a pathway to a reformed and regimented society. The party pledged that, if appointed Governor of the
National Bank of Romania The National Bank of Romania ( ro, Banca Națională a României, BNR) is the central bank of Romania and was established in April 1880. Its headquarters are located in the capital city of Bucharest. The National Bank of Romania is responsible ...
, Angelescu would be in a position to redirect credit only toward Romanian-dominated enterprises. Vaida claimed that he was merely fulfilling his old agenda, arguing that, in places such as the
Banat Banat (, ; hu, Bánság; sr, Банат, Banat) is a geographical and historical region that straddles Central and Eastern Europe and which is currently divided among three countries: the eastern part lies in western Romania (the counties of ...
Romanians could only find employment doing menial labor. He then argued that the effects of his approach could be observed in the experiment of Leghia, where a Romanian entrepreneur,
Mihail Manoilescu Mihail Manoilescu (; December 9, 1891 – December 30, 1950) was a Romanian journalist, engineer, economist, politician and memoirist, who served as Foreign Minister of Romania during the summer of 1940. An active promoter of and contributor to ...
, had taken over control of a "Jewish" mine, then restaffed it with Romanian engineers. Proclaiming that "capital and labour must be subservient to the superior object of the Nation", the party program also looked to "the selection of the best elements among the children of the race" to take place within the school system. The process of instituting ethnic protectionism would contribute to the emergence of a "really (biologically) national state", the "national organic State" (which "must be a Constitutional Monarchy"), with "the abolition of all class war". One variant sketched out in FR circles was social corporatism, as popularized by Ioanițescu through his own magazine, ''Drum Nou''. According to political scientist Victor Rizescu, this vision had been forged in left-liberal circles, before undergoing an appropriation by the nationalist right. Ioanițescu further proposed that mandatory spending and protective tariffs could be used to favor infant industries and model consumption."Țărănimea — victima trusturilor", in ''
Gazeta Transilvaniei ''Gazeta de Transilvania'' was the first Romanian-language newspaper to be published in Transylvania. It was founded by George Bariț in 1838 in Brașov. It played a very important role in the awakening of the Romanian national conscience in Tran ...
'', Issue 19/1937, p. 1
This protectionism was not extended into
debt relief Debt relief or debt cancellation is the partial or total forgiveness of debt, or the slowing or stopping of debt growth, owed by individuals, corporations, or nations. From antiquity through the 19th century, it refers to domestic debts, in particu ...
for the peasantry: among FR members, Vlad stood out for opposing such measures, noting that they would incapacitate the credit unions of Transylvania. Upon creating the FR, Vaida declared his opposition to
agrarian socialism Agrarian socialism is a political ideology that promotes “the equal distribution of landed resources among collectivized peasant villages” This socialist system places agriculture at the center of the economy instead of the industrialization ...
and the
cooperative movement The history of the cooperative movement concerns the origins and history of cooperatives across the world. Although cooperative arrangements, such as mutual insurance, and principles of cooperation existed long before, the cooperative movement bega ...
as ideals embraced by the PNȚ's left-wing. Speaking for this current, ''Țara de Mâine'' journal argued that he was committing "political suicide" by turning his back on the "peasant uplift". Cooperatist doctrinaire Victor Jinga additionally noted that the FR leader had shown his political incompetence by building himself a large manor in
Olpret The Olpret is a left tributary of the river Someș in Romania Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern, and Southeast Europe, Southeastern Europe. It borders Bu ...
, while its "purely Romanian" villagers were living in "indescribable squalor". The FR was similarly castigated by the left-wing essayist Constantin Prisnea, who argued that Guardism and Vaidism were "duping the youth with 'ideology', which is nothing other than the very demolition of Romanian cultural values". Vaida also stated his radical
anticommunism Anti-communism is political and ideological opposition to communism. Organized anti-communism developed after the 1917 October Revolution in the Russian Empire, and it reached global dimensions during the Cold War, when the United States and the ...
which, as historian Armin Heinen writes, "clashed bizarrely with the actual insignificance of the
Communist Party A communist party is a political party that seeks to realize the socio-economic goals of communism. The term ''communist party'' was popularized by the title of '' The Manifesto of the Communist Party'' (1848) by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engel ...
." In at least one instance, he equated democracy itself with "the left ndall its parade of revolutionary ideas, its free propaganda in favor of
kolkhoz A kolkhoz ( rus, колхо́з, a=ru-kolkhoz.ogg, p=kɐlˈxos) was a form of collective farm in the Soviet Union. Kolkhozes existed along with state farms or sovkhoz., a contraction of советское хозяйство, soviet ownership or ...
es, its portraits of
Stalin Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (born Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili; – 5 March 1953) was a Georgian revolutionary and Soviet political leader who led the Soviet Union from 1924 until his death in 1953. He held power as General Secretar ...
everywhere on display". Ever since the 1910s, ''Gazeta Transilvaniei'' had endorsed the conspiracy theory of "
Jewish Bolshevism Jewish Bolshevism, also Judeo–Bolshevism, is an anti-communist and antisemitic canard, which alleges that the Jews were the originators of the Russian Revolution in 1917, and that they held primary power among the Bolsheviks who led the revo ...
", enhanced after 1935 by allegations that the Jewish community was entirely subordinate to the
Comintern The Communist International (Comintern), also known as the Third International, was a Soviet-controlled international organization founded in 1919 that advocated world communism. The Comintern resolved at its Second Congress to "struggle by ...
; it also claimed that mainstream Labor Zionist groups such as
HeHalutz HeHalutz or HeChalutz ( he, הֶחָלוּץ, lit. "The Pioneer") was a Jewish youth movement that trained young people for agricultural settlement in the Land of Israel. It became an umbrella organization of the pioneering Zionist youth moveme ...
were in reality champions of communism. A series of articles in ''Basarabia Creștină'' argued that
Bessarabia Bessarabia (; Gagauz: ''Besarabiya''; Romanian: ''Basarabia''; Ukrainian: ''Бессара́бія'') is a historical region in Eastern Europe, bounded by the Dniester river on the east and the Prut river on the west. About two thirds o ...
had been the original target for settlement by the
Jewish Colonization Association The Jewish Colonisation Association (JCA or ICA, Yiddish ייִק"אַ), in America spelled Jewish Colonization Association, is an organisation created on September 11, 1891, by Baron Maurice de Hirsch. Its aim was to facilitate the mass emigratio ...
, and was still being "undermined" by "agrarian kikes". FR papers expressed sympathy with the
Arab Revolt The Arab Revolt ( ar, الثورة العربية, ) or the Great Arab Revolt ( ar, الثورة العربية الكبرى, ) was a military uprising of Arab forces against the Ottoman Empire in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I. On ...
, arguing that Zionists represented a nation that "is gleefully being expelled from all countries of the world." In conjunction with this theory, Vaida circulated allegations that the PNȚ left, which was in contact with the Communist Party, was also financed by, and forever indebted to, the "Jewish minority". Communists such as Constantinescu-Iași reciprocated Vaida's sentiments, calling the FR part of the "black warmongers' bloc" and of "the fascist peril". ''Gazeta'' congratulated Craiova's prosecutors who obtained a conviction for communist
Ana Pauker Ana Pauker (born Hannah Rabinsohn; 13 February 1893 – 3 June 1960) was a Romanian communist leader and served as the country's foreign minister in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Ana Pauker became the world's first female foreign minister whe ...
in 1936, citing this as a victory for "Romanian solidarity" against "foreign emissaries". Nonetheless, Pauker's defense team included Mircea Lepădătescu, who was both a leading FR cadre and a contact for Dolj's
Marxist Marxism is a left-wing to far-left method of socioeconomic analysis that uses a materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to understand class relations and social conflict and a dialecti ...
study circles.


Nationalist Bloc

Despite official backing and circumstantial supporters, the Front failed to prosper, and was always a "frail party". As noted by Heinen: "Within just a few weeks, it became clear that Vaida could not fulfill the hopes invested in him y the king" On May 15, 1935, an FR meeting at Vox Hall in
Bucharest Bucharest ( , ; ro, București ) is the capital and largest city of Romania, as well as its cultural, industrial, and financial centre. It is located in the southeast of the country, on the banks of the Dâmbovița River, less than north o ...
gathered some 5,000 spectators, though, reportedly, many of them were delegated by the Iron Guard. The first electoral test was a by-election in Prahova, where the FR only managed 6,000 votes, well below the PNL and PNȚ. In the June by-elections for the
Senate A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the el ...
seat at Mehedinți, Vaida himself obtained less than 3,000 votes. One contributing factor was that Premier Tătărescu himself introduced some laws implicitly aimed against the Jewish community, whilst also seeking to deliberately contain the FR and other radical groups. The FR could still boast a strong presence in Guardist-dominated regions such as
Câmpulung Moldovenesc Câmpulung Moldovenesc (; formerly spelled ''Cîmpulung Moldovenesc'') is a town in Suceava County, northeastern Romania. It is situated in the historical region of Bukovina. Câmpulung Moldovenesc is the fourth largest urban settlement in the ...
, where its senator, Dumitru Tinu, ran a successful
consumer cooperative A consumers' co-operative is an enterprise owned by consumers and managed democratically and that aims at fulfilling the needs and aspirations of its members. Such co-operatives operate within the market system, independently of the state, as a f ...
. In early 1935, Vaida was interested in toning down the perception of his party as a Carlist puppet. For this reason, he negotiated a rapprochement with the anti-Carol Constitutional Front, formed by Gheorghe Brătianu and
Alexandru Averescu Alexandru Averescu (; 9 March 1859 – 2 October 1938) was a Romanian marshal, diplomat and populist politician. A Romanian Armed Forces Commander during World War I, he served as Prime Minister of three separate cabinets (as well as being ''inter ...
. Reportedly, in April 1935 Vaida had asked that the king's influential mistress, Elena Lupescu, be forced into exile, although his colleague Mirto was still widely perceived as a member of Lupescu's ''
camarilla A camarilla is a group of courtiers or favourites who surround a king or ruler. Usually, they do not hold any office or have any official authority at the royal court but influence their ruler behind the scenes. Consequently, they also escape havi ...
''. The National Agrarian Party (PNA), headed by Vaida's old rival
Octavian Goga Octavian Goga (; 1 April 1881 – 7 May 1938) was a Romanian politician, poet, playwright, journalist, and translator. Life and politics Goga was born in Rășinari, near Sibiu. Goga was an active member in the Romanian nationalisti ...
, also approached the Front with offers of alliance or merger. Reportedly, Goga offered to fuse his group into the FR, only demanding the position of Vice President; Vaida refused, since he had promised that role to Vlad. The FR's wish to create a "strong nationalist pole" also drove it into negotiations with Carlist supporters on the extreme right. Its first partners were the LANC, in particular its youth wing, and a more minor Iron Guard splinter group, the
Crusade of Romanianism The Crusade of Romanianism ( ro, Cruciada Românismului, also known as ''Vulturii Albi'', "White Eagles", ''Steliști'', "Stelists", or ''Cruciați'', "Crusaders") was an eclectic far-right group in Romania, founded in late 1934 by Mihai Stelescu ...
. On May 16, it was rumored that the FR would absorb both the LANC and the PNA: "Vaida will be the president of the Romanian Front, Goga will be his vice president, and Cuza will be offered the honorary presidency." However, the FR and the LANC were irreconcilable over Vaida's ''numerus Valachicus'' doctrines. Cuza wrote at the time that Vaida's system of quotas, "instead of signifying the defense of Romanian elements, will bring about the complete extinction of urideal, 'Romania for the Romanians'." Around August 1935, the Front was reportedly negotiating a merger with Ion V. Emilian's "Fire Swastika", which had broken out of the LANC. Vaida's antisemitic ideology also won him the endorsement from Colonel Ștefan Tătărescu, brother of the Premier and former leader of the Romanian National Socialists. They signed a pact, which allowed Vaida's followers focused on campaigning in Transylvania and the Banat; Col. Tătărescu was taking primacy in all other regions, as head of the ''Numerus Valachicus'' National Movement. Clashes with the PNȚ were still reported during that interval: in October 1935, the Sighet home of a Vaidist was reportedly attacked by a PNȚ crew under Ilie Lazăr. Shots were fired during the scuffle, leaving Lazăr wounded in the arm. By then, the FR was negotiating an alliance with the more powerful National Christian Party (PNC), which had resulted, with Carol's blessing, from the LANC's merger with the PNA. In August 1935, the new FR newspaper, also titled ''Frontul Românesc'', announced that the two groups would only agree on a "minimal platform" for government, with fusion only occurring "naturally and automatically" at some point in the future; from the PNC side, Goga put out a similarly cautious message. Together, the PNC and the FR established a Nationalist Bloc, the second-largest coalition in
Parliament In modern politics, and history, a parliament is a legislative body of government. Generally, a modern parliament has three functions: representing the electorate, making laws, and overseeing the government via hearings and inquiries. Th ...
(after the PNL's). The PNC leader, Goga, welcomed Vaida as a fellow combatant "for the national cause." Nevertheless, the alliance saw PNC activists such as Nichifor Crainic, whose radical ethnocratic program was rejected by Vaida-Voevod, leaving in protest. By November 1935, Maniu and the PNȚ had grown fearful of this rapprochement, noting that it could produce an electoral sweep by "the right". The FR still discussed a merger with the PNC, but advanced talks exposed other fundamental disagreements between the two sides. Reportedly, Vaida was upset by the PNC's foreign policy, which openly celebrated
revanchism Revanchism (french: revanchisme, from ''revanche'', "revenge") is the political manifestation of the will to reverse territorial losses incurred by a country, often following a war or social movement. As a term, revanchism originated in 1870s Fr ...
and
German re-armament German rearmament (''Aufrüstung'', ) was a policy and practice of rearmament carried out in Germany during the interwar period (1918–1939), in violation of the Treaty of Versailles which required German disarmament after WWI to prevent Ger ...
. Carol was enthusiastic about the promised merger, which he hoped would give him a "strong party of the right" to control. In early January 1936, Vaida announced that fusion was no longer being sought, and also that the FR would not field candidates in any partial elections scheduled for that year; demoralized by what he saw as Carol's machinations, he declared his intention to withdraw from politics. Despite renewed efforts by the king, a complete merger between the two parties again failed to materialize, and, to the Guard's stated satisfaction, both the PNC and the FR experienced major internal dissension.


Stagnation

At that stage, the FR moved closer to the Guard. Vaida was a guest of honor at the Guard's student congress, held at
Târgu Mureș Târgu Mureș (, ; hu, Marosvásárhely ) is the seat of Mureș County in the historical region of Transylvania, Romania. It is the 16th largest Romanian city, with 134,290 inhabitants as of the 2011 census. It lies on the Mureș River, the ...
in March 1936. In April, he made a stop at
Iași Iași ( , , ; also known by other alternative names), also referred to mostly historically as Jassy ( , ), is the second largest city in Romania and the seat of Iași County. Located in the historical region of Moldavia, it has traditionally ...
, where an Aromanian man confronted him, "ask ngMr Vaida that he spare no violence toward enacting his program." Vaida was upset by this take, replying: "I will never resort to violence in applying our program." During May, he and Mironescu had private meetings with the Guard, hoping to persuade its leaders to renounce also violent methods. Contrarily, in his interviews with Carol, Vaida voiced his praise toward the Guard, while shunning the PNC. He and Carol agreed that the Guardists needed to be coaxed and kept away from reaching an understanding with Maniu. Meanwhile, Vaida had caused a national controversy by visiting
Timișoara ), City of Roses ( ro, Orașul florilor), City of Parks ( ro, Orașul parcurilor) , image_map = Timisoara jud Timis.svg , map_caption = Location in Timiș County , pushpin_map = Romania#Europe , pushpin_ ...
and declaring a radical agenda in terms of foreign policy. This included demands that France "stay out of our internal politics", and unprecedented territorial claims on the
Kingdom of Yugoslavia The Kingdom of Yugoslavia ( sh-Latn-Cyrl, separator=" / ", Kraljevina Jugoslavija, Краљевина Југославија; sl, Kraljevina Jugoslavija) was a state in Southeast and Central Europe that existed from 1918 until 1941. From 191 ...
(in respect to
Vojvodina Vojvodina ( sr-Cyrl, Војводина}), officially the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, is an autonomous province that occupies the northernmost part of Serbia. It lies within the Pannonian Basin, bordered to the south by the national capital ...
). He declared that the League of Nations was powerless against the "victorious discipline" of the
Italian Empire The Italian colonial empire ( it, Impero coloniale italiano), known as the Italian Empire (''Impero Italiano'') between 1936 and 1943, began in Africa in the 19th century and comprised the colonies, protectorates, concessions and dependenci ...
and the Hitlerian "unity of sentiment and willpower". During that time, he increased his pressures on the party base, hoping to accelerate its paramilitary transformation. This effort sparked revolt among the FR sections in
Brăila County Brăila County () is a county (județ) of Romania, in Muntenia, with the capital city at Brăila. Demographics In 2011, Brăila had a population of 304,925 and the population density was 64/km2. * Romanians – 98% * Romani, Russians, Lipo ...
, whose leaders Anastase Petrescu and Marin Panait handed in their resignations. A reshuffled Tătărescu government took over in mid-1936. The Front still held its large rallies, boasting that 20,000 affiliates heard Ioanițescu speaking at
Galați Galați (, , ; also known by other alternative names) is the capital city of Galați County in the historical region of Western Moldavia, in eastern Romania. Galați is a port town on the Danube River. It has been the only port for the most pa ...
in March. However, according to the regional journal ''Viața Ardealului'', summer 1936 was a "period of stagnation" for the FR and "the nationalist current as a whole". The Front was still "sure of its destiny", but "organizing in depth" and keeping secret about it. Vaida and Angelescu now advanced the notion of a PNȚ–FR reconciliation, arguing that it could successfully bring down the PNL cabinet. One other option, advanced by Carol and journalist
Pamfil Șeicaru Pamfil is a Romanian given name and surname. Notable people with the name include: * Pamfil Polonic (1858–1943), Romanian archaeologist and topographer * Pamfil Yurkevich (1826–1874), Ukrainian philosopher * Radu Pamfil (1951–2009), Romani ...
, was for the FR to join efforts with the breakaway Radical Peasants' Party (PRȚ). The latter was at the time clarifying its anti-Vaidist position, calling out the FR squads as "criminal gangs". Meanwhile, revelations about
German re-armament German rearmament (''Aufrüstung'', ) was a policy and practice of rearmament carried out in Germany during the interwar period (1918–1939), in violation of the Treaty of Versailles which required German disarmament after WWI to prevent Ger ...
, pushed the FR closer to Nazism. In June, following the Rhineland crisis, ''
L'Humanité ''L'Humanité'' (; ), is a French daily newspaper. It was previously an organ of the French Communist Party, and maintains links to the party. Its slogan is "In an ideal world, ''L'Humanité'' would not exist." History and profile Pre-World Wa ...
'' reported that the "racist parties" (the Front, the Iron Guard and the PNC) staged a march outside the French embassy in Bucharest, with chants of "Long live Hitler!" With this, Vaida declared that Germany was marching toward realizing the ''
Anschluss The (, or , ), also known as the (, en, Annexation of Austria), was the annexation of the Federal State of Austria into the German Reich on 13 March 1938. The idea of an (a united Austria and Germany that would form a " Greater Germa ...
'', pleading for France to discard its
Popular Front A popular front is "any coalition of working-class and middle-class parties", including liberal and social democratic ones, "united for the defense of democratic forms" against "a presumed Fascist assault". More generally, it is "a coalition ...
and rejoin the "nationalist" camp. In response, ''Lupta'' noted that Vaida was not up to date on French politics: the Popular Front had "proceeded to destroy all Jewish capitalists and bankers", whereas Vaida's personal idol,
François de La Rocque François de La Rocque (; 6 October 1885 – 28 April 1946) was the leader of the French right-wing league the Croix de Feu from 1930 to 1936 before he formed the more moderate nationalist French Social Party (1936–1940), which has been ...
, had attended at least one memorial service in a synagogue. Vaida's optimism was also castigated by
Conservative Party The Conservative Party is a name used by many political parties around the world. These political parties are generally right-wing though their exact ideologies can range from center-right to far-right. Political parties called The Conservative P ...
leader Grigore Filipescu, who warned Vaida that his other idol,
Benito Mussolini Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (; 29 July 188328 April 1945) was an Italian politician and journalist who founded and led the National Fascist Party. He was Prime Minister of Italy from the March on Rome in 1922 until his deposition in ...
, was an opportunist, and that "Mussolinism has no Vaidist sympathies." Speaking at
Oradea Oradea (, , ; german: Großwardein ; hu, Nagyvárad ) is a city in Romania, located in Crișana, a sub-region of Transylvania. The seat of Bihor County, Oradea is one of the most important economic, social and cultural centers in the western par ...
in October, Vaida saluted both
Axis powers The Axis powers, ; it, Potenze dell'Asse ; ja, 枢軸国 ''Sūjikukoku'', group=nb originally called the Rome–Berlin Axis, was a military coalition that initiated World War II and fought against the Allies. Its principal members were ...
. According to Vaida, the
Locarno Treaties The Locarno Treaties were seven agreements negotiated at Locarno, Switzerland, during 5 to 16 October 1925 and formally signed in London on 1 December, in which the First World War Western European Allied powers and the new states of Central a ...
were naturally obsolete, and Germany was right to ignore them; however, he cautioned that the borders of
Greater Romania The term Greater Romania ( ro, România Mare) usually refers to the borders of the Kingdom of Romania in the interwar period, achieved after the Great Union. It also refers to a pan-nationalist idea. As a concept, its main goal is the creatio ...
needed to be guaranteed by both Germany and France. This stance was ridiculed by the PNȚ youth: in a September communique, it noted that Vaida, "that old fascist parrot", was silent on the issue of Italian support for
Hungarian irredentism Hungarian irredentism or Greater Hungary ( hu, Nagy-Magyarország) are irredentist political ideas concerning redemption of territories of the historical Kingdom of Hungary. Targeting at least to regain control over Hungarian-populated areas in ...
, though this would have entailed the loss of Transylvania to
Hungary Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Cr ...
. From the PNȚ's left, Nicolae L. Lupu described the FR as stoking "racial ndGermanophile violence"; in response, the FR played down such incidents as "the excesses of certain youths", while noting brawls started by the PNȚ's own '' Voinici''. In November, as Mussolini expressed full support for a Hungarian expansion, Vaida joined other Romanian politicians in voicing his indignation. He and his party sought to tone down the "hysteria", informing their partisans that Mussolini would never risk going to war over Hungarian demands in Transylvania. Vaidists pledged themselves to combat propaganda by the Hungarian Unity Party, arguing that it "falsifies the most obvious truths". The FR also noted that Mihalache's anti-revisionism was a diversion used by communist and Jewish infiltrators. On September 4, the FR and PNC had agreed on another collaboration, and presented a single list for the local elections of that year. The PNȚ alleged that the two parties also unified their political militias. It described a case in Baia County, where two priests, Hreamătă and Dăscălescu, respectively led the ''
Lăncieri The ''Lăncieri'' ("Lancers", ) were a Romanian fascist paramilitary movement initially attached to the National-Christian Defense League, and following the merger on 16 July 1935 of the NCDL and the National Agrarian Party to form the National C ...
'' and Vaidist "gangs", which coordinated with each other in assaulting their political opponents. Brătianu's Georgist Liberal Party also collaborated with the two parties in places such as
Brașov Brașov (, , ; german: Kronstadt; hu, Brassó; la, Corona; Transylvanian Saxon: ''Kruhnen'') is a city in Transylvania, Romania and the administrative centre of Brașov County. According to the latest Romanian census (2011), Brașov has a pop ...
; though invited to join this "purely Romanian list", the PNȚ declined. In
Ilfov County Ilfov () is the county that surrounds Bucharest, the capital of Romania. It used to be largely rural, but, after the fall of Communism, many of the county's villages and communes developed into high-income commuter towns, which act like suburbs ...
, the two-party list was headed by Ioanițescu, with the PNC man
Stan Ghițescu Stan Ghițescu (June 2, 1881 – February 25, 1952) was a Romanian politician. Born in Mârzănești, Teleorman County, Cicerone Ionițoiu"Victimele terorii comuniste. Arestați, torturați, întemnițați, uciși. Dicționar G"/ref> he at ...
taking the second eligible seat. The Front's registered logo, "two concentric circles and a dot", doubled as the alliance symbol. Called "target" or "wheel" in party documents, this drawing symbolized Greater Romania as an outside circle, and, within, "the belt strap tightening around The Black Dot, namely the xenophile". According to ''Gazeta Transilvaniei'', the symbolism was poorly understood by illiterate sympathizers, who mistakenly voted with the PNȚ's circle (which had been intensely popularized by Ioanițescu before his defection).


Electoral failure and PNȚ rapprochement

A November 1937 piece in ''Lupta'' noted that there was a simmering conflict opposing "centrists" such as Vaida and Angelescu to the PNC-aligned Ioanițescu and Nițescu. On New Year's Day 1937, Vaida sent a telegram to La Rocque and his French Social Party, which stated: "May God grant that our two countries can successfully fight for their shared ideals of peace, respect for family, and work, freely and honestly." La Roque replied, expressing his similar wishes for the "Romanian and French sister nations"; the FR celebrated this exchange as the inauguration of a direct relationship between "nationalist France" and "nationalist Romania". According to the Jewish magazine ''
Új Kelet ''Új Kelet'' ( Hungarian translation: "New East") is a Hungarian-language Zionist Jewish newspaper published first in Kolozsvár (Cluj) in Transylvania, Romania, and reestablished after a 10-year break in Tel Aviv, Israel in 1948. Under the in ...
'', Vaida was conspicuously the "great favorite" for the post of Prime Minister, and could afford to ignore offers of collaboration from the PNC. Over the following months, the FR was effectively marginalized: in March 1937, Tătărescu banned the FR's black insignia and uniforms, alongside those of other paramilitary movements (including the Guard and the PNC). Early 1937 saw rumors of a tentative co-operation between Vaida and the PNȚ, which was still chaired by Mihalache. According to various outlets, Vaida had ordered his propagandists to only focus criticism on Maniu, while Tilea mediated between the two parties. The parties clashed again in February, during the international incident sparked by the Moța–Marin funeral. This event, celebrating Guardist participation in the
Spanish Civil War The Spanish Civil War ( es, Guerra Civil Española)) or The Revolution ( es, La Revolución, link=no) among Nationalists, the Fourth Carlist War ( es, Cuarta Guerra Carlista, link=no) among Carlism, Carlists, and The Rebellion ( es, La Rebeli ...
, was attended by Axis diplomats, causing an uproar among mainstream politicians. Speaking for the FR, Ioanițescu criticized foreign meddling in Romanian affairs, but also alleged that the PNȚ had desecrated a "heroic sacrifice" by raising a political issue. According to left-wing journalist Emil Socor, the FR's response to this "defiance of stately prerogatives" was dictated by the PNC, but in fact contrasted with the moderation of regular party members. Later that year, the Vaidists and the PNȚ's left were still irreconcilable, with FR venues again pressing for a nationalist–monarchist alliance. This approach became normative after April elections for council seats in
Sibiu County Sibiu County () is a county ( ro, județ) of Romania, in the historical region of Transylvania. Its county seat ( ro, reședință de județ) is the namesake town of Sibiu (german: Hermannstadt). Name In Hungarian, it is known as ''Szeben m ...
: Vaidists and National Christians ran on separate lists, which diminished both parties' chances; the FR also discovered that, though Nazified, Saxon voters preferred Saxon moderates to Romanian nationalists. Similarly, a local FR–Iron Guard alliance for the local council of
Piatra Neamț Piatra Neamț (; german: Kreuzburg an der Bistrița (Siret), Bistritz; hu, Karácsonkő) is the capital city of Neamț County, in the historical region of Western Moldavia, in northeastern Romania. Because of its privileged location in the Easter ...
failed to make an impact. In April, the Front and the PNC were ridiculed for their anti-PNȚ alliance in
Deva Deva may refer to: Entertainment * ''Deva'' (1989 film), a 1989 Kannada film * ''Deva'' (1995 film), a 1995 Tamil film * ''Deva'' (2002 film), a 2002 Bengali film * Deva (2007 Telugu film) * ''Deva'' (2017 film), a 2017 Marathi film * Deva ...
, which also offered an eligible position on the municipal council to Mór Lőrincz, of the local Jewish community. During the May election at
Chișinău Chișinău ( , , ), also known as Kishinev (russian: Кишинёв, r=Kishinjóv ), is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Moldova. The city is Moldova's main industrial and commercial center, and is located in the middle of the ...
, the FR ran its on list. It only gathered 249 votes, below the PNC's 652; the PNȚ list, meanwhile, took the majority with 3,736. The PNȚ boasted several victories in the local elections of June. The National Peasantist press noted that victory came despite a "conspiracy" between government and "right-wing parties" (PNC and FR),"Victorii național-țărăniste în alegerile din Dolj, Ilfov, Argeș, Romanați și Dâmbovița", in ''Românul. Organ al Partidului Național-Țărănesc din Jud. Arad'', Issue 1/1937, p. 3 and despite an "unhinged" propaganda campaign mounted by the extreme right "united under the Vaidist sign". Similar claims were advanced by a leftist daily, '' Dimineața'', who noted that the Front had been defeated by Ilie Lazăr in
Maramureș County Maramureș County () is a county (județ) in Romania, in the Maramureș region. The county seat is Baia Mare. Name In Hungarian it is known as ''Máramaros megye'', in Ukrainian as Мараморо́щина, in German as ''Kreis Marmarosch' ...
, "although they fell back on the most outlandishly antisemitic propaganda ever witnessed in Maramureș, and despite all the benevolent support from the Liberals ndfrom some propagandists of the Iron Guard". PNȚ activists were incensed by Tilea's claim that Maniu had turned republican, which they described as calumny; in reaction, they claimed that Tilea, the "kinglet of Vaidism", ran a forestry business financed by Jewish capital. Vaida played down the election as "unimportant", arguing that the poor showing was a result of his party refusing to corrupt itself with sponsorships. At the end of this race, the FR's best result was a second place in Ilfov, with 13,505 of the votes cast, a 22% of the total. This gave it 13 seats in the Bucharest–Ilfov Council."Constituirea consiliului județean. Tâlcul unei ședințe și viitorul guvern. Mai pot colabora vaidiștii cu național țărăniștii?", in ''Gazeta Municipală'', Issue 279, June 1937, p. 6 During its campaign, the Front had promised to expropriate land all around Bucharest, to be used for
affordable housing Affordable housing is housing which is deemed affordable to those with a household income at or below the median as rated by the national government or a local government by a recognized housing affordability index. Most of the literature on af ...
and a
green belt A green belt is a policy and land-use zone designation used in land-use planning to retain areas of largely undeveloped, wild, or agricultural land surrounding or neighboring urban areas. Similar concepts are greenways or green wedges, which h ...
. The unusual success was also made possible by divisions within the PNL, which as a result took no seat. The FR representation, led by Ioanițescu, had an enduring ideological conflict with the PNȚ chapter under
Virgil Madgearu Virgil Traian N. Madgearu (; December 14, 1887 – November 27, 1940) was a Romanian economist, sociologist, and left-wing politician, prominent member and main theorist of the Peasants' Party and of its successor, the National Peasants' Part ...
, which only had a 4-man majority. In July, the FR sought to revive itself in other regions by accepting pacts with the PNL and the PNC for the county elections in Putna. With the PNȚ ready to assume power, but waiting on the
royal prerogative The royal prerogative is a body of customary authority, privilege and immunity, recognized in common law and, sometimes, in civil law jurisdictions possessing a monarchy, as belonging to the sovereign and which have become widely vested in th ...
, Carol II ordered it to accept Vaida-Voevod at Internal Affairs. As noted by Tilea, "Mr Ion Mihalache never even dared cross Mr Vaida's threshold", since doing so would have alienated him from its supposed sponsors, "the foreign bankers". By most accounts, Carol knew that this request would be ignored, and only hoped to create more rifts between the two currents within the PNȚ. Carol also pressed on for a "cute" merger between the two parties, arguing that both Vaida and Mironescu were essentially Peasantists in their outlook. This intervention renewed the tensions within that group:
Armand Călinescu Armand Călinescu (4 June 1893 – 21 September 1939) was a Romanian economist and politician, who served as 39th Prime Minister from March 1939 until his assassination six months later. He was a staunch opponent of the fascist Iron Guard and m ...
, who had served under Vaida and was close to the king, criticized the party leadership for not sealing a deal with the FR. This pact was endorsed in October 1937 by Vaida and Tilea, who reportedly accepted the supremacy of "National-Peasantist ideology". Maniu was also persuaded during secret meetings with Nițescu, describing his break with Vaida as a "temporary" matter. However, during new talks in November, Vaida clarified that he still expected the PNȚ's left to be expelled, and only wanted to absorb the centrists. Meanwhile, Vaida was collaborating with Carol on the old project of uniting right-wing monarchists into a single governing bloc. In November 1937, he participated in a secret gathering of Carlist figures, including Averescu, Brătianu, Cuza, Filipescu, the PRȚ's
Grigore Iunian Grigore Iunian (September 30, 1882 – 1939) was a Romanian left-wing politician and lawyer. A member of the National Liberal Party (PNL) during the 1910s, he rallied with the Peasants' Party (PȚ) after World War I, and followed it into the ...
, and the Iron Guard's Zizi Cantacuzino. They discussed forging a "national union" from their respective parties. However, Filipescu also denounced such dealings and favored the PNȚ—who, he argued, "will take power without Vaida and without Iunian". The FR preserved its nominal independence ahead of the new general election. According to diarist
Liviu Rebreanu Liviu Rebreanu (; November 27, 1885 – September 1, 1944) was a Romanian novelist, playwright, short story writer, and journalist. Life Born in Felsőilosva (now Târlișua, Bistrița-Năsăud County, Transylvania), then part of the Kingd ...
, this was after Mihalache had openly refused to accept Vaida; the latter was persuaded by "that foul man Tilea" into supporting a new Tătărescu administration. Rebreanu described the arrangement as Vaida's political destruction. In December, the FR registered for this with a new electoral symbol, comprising a rectangle split into solid-white and solid-black halves. The "target" was instead being reused by Al. Samoilă's group, the General Union of Small Industrialists.


PNL alliance

Before the race, the PNȚ had signed its own "non-aggression pact", with the Iron Guard. The FR (having failed in its bid to coalesce with the Guard) ran as an ally of the PNL. Iunian provided a quick reaction to the news: "The Liberals, a party which claims to be democratic and opposed to the far-right, have found nothing better to do than to associate themselves with Mr Vaida. You are aware of his program: ''numerus Valachicus'' and other more or less serious pleasantries. ..Had the electoral law been modified, we would not be witnessing this demeaning spectacle." The pact was ridiculed by analyst Osvald Al. Teodoreanu as a "tiny monstrosity". Teodoreanu rejected claims that it was an attempt by the PNL to outdo its PNC competitors; he argued instead that Vaida had successfully duped his allies into assigning eligible positions to his clients. As part of this understanding, the two parties shared a single lists, but no Vaidists were allowed to run in four counties of
Western Moldavia Moldavia ( ro, Moldova), also called Western Moldavia or Romanian Moldavia, is the historic and geographical part of the former Principality of Moldavia situated in eastern and north-eastern Romania. Until its union with Wallachia in 1859, the P ...
Botoșani Botoșani () is the capital city of Botoșani County, in the northern part of Moldavia, Romania. Today, it is best known as the birthplace of many celebrated Romanians, including Mihai Eminescu, Nicolae Iorga and Grigore Antipa. Origin of the na ...
, Fălciu,
Iași Iași ( , , ; also known by other alternative names), also referred to mostly historically as Jassy ( , ), is the second largest city in Romania and the seat of Iași County. Located in the historical region of Moldavia, it has traditionally ...
and
Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: * Rome, the capital city of Italy * Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lett ...
. FR propaganda explained that Vaida's ideas had "corrected" the PNL's stance on various topics, adjusting it to the "stringent necessities of life." Tilea reported to disgruntled FR members that the PNL was largely consonant with a "consolidation of Romanian forces", and that the alliance was aimed at defending Romania against encroachment by the
Soviet Union The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen nationa ...
, whose "tentacles extend like a spider's web over Europe in its entirety". As noted in its election manifesto, the FR had largely accepted PNL guidelines in foreign affairs: "The Romanian Front is determined to respect the directives of our traditional policy, meaning that it is committed to those countries who have contributed toward unifying the Romanian land n 1918 and whose interests we share. But t alsobelieves that we should maintain good relations with all states, refusing to meddle into their internal affairs, or to initiate any crusades for the victory of this and that ideology." Such re-positioning created a new set of tensions between the FR and the Guardists. In Putna, a local Vaidist was physically assaulted after referring to the Guardists as "thieves and criminals", reminding them about the Duca assassination. The PNC also publicly turned against the FR, punishing its apparent conciliation with the Carlist project. Goga's colleague Istrate Micescu published scathing attacks against Vaida, which were then popularized in Western media. The FR alliance was welcomed in Germany as a sign that the PNL was being Nazified from within. One tangible consequence was that the National Liberals stripped Jews from their electoral lists, on Vaida's request. As head of the PNL chapter in Roman County, Ion Manolescu-Strunga explained to his followers that the FR was right about "the Jews who have arrived in this country after 1919", as these "form a dangerous anti-state element, one which will also end up ruining the native Jewish element." At the time, the Front's own antisemitic discourse became more explicit, with Vaida asking that Romania be "deloused" of its Jews, slated for mass deportation to
Mandatory Palestine Mandatory Palestine ( ar, فلسطين الانتدابية '; he, פָּלֶשְׂתִּינָה (א״י) ', where "E.Y." indicates ''’Eretz Yiśrā’ēl'', the Land of Israel) was a geopolitical entity established between 1920 and 1948 ...
. Also joining this pact was the Nazi-influenced German Party, brought into it by a separate understanding with Vaida. The two agreed to run on a "nationally oriented" platform, against communism. In some respects, the pact was a failure. Vaida himself explained to his colleagues that he would become Tătărescu's "staunchest opponent", and that the FR agenda remained intact—although, as Argetoianu writes, the nationalist current was "in shambles". On the PNL side, Iamandi actively sabotaged the alliance, and was probably responsible for the exclusion of Vaidist candidacies at Iași; a similar move took place in Neamț County. In tandem, '' Glasul Bucovinei'', as the PNL mouthpiece in
Cernăuți County Cernăuți County was a county (județ) of Romania, in Bukovina, with the capital city at Cernăuți. The area was incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1940 (after the Soviet occupation of Northern Bukovina) and again in 1944 (after the Soviet o ...
, noted that the local "Vaidist organizations" were not actively supporting the common effort. Hațieganu and other Transylvanians quit the Front, calling it a "mockery" and a "sold-over". They maintained control over ''Frontul Românesc'' newspaper, which they reissued as ''Frontul''."Ultima oră. D. Eduard Mirto a demisionat din 'Frontul Românesc'", in ''Patria'', January 28, 1938, p. 4 Upon being reintegrated by the PNȚ's regional committee, Hațieganu declared Vaida to be a "great man, but one who errs". The FR leadership retorted, alleging that Hațieganu, had been a "zealous protagonist" in FR–PNL talks. According to this source, Hațieganu was actually angered by the Front's refusal to sanction his electoral
nepotism Nepotism is an advantage, privilege, or position that is granted to relatives and friends in an occupation or field. These fields may include but are not limited to, business, politics, academia, entertainment, sports, fitness, religion, an ...
. The deal was only apparently lucrative for the PNL: the FR had registered significant gains in some by-elections, but the extra votes came from members of the Guard, as the latter had opted not to put up candidates of its own. Some of the FR's electorate refused to vote for the PNL, and Jewish National Liberal supporters were also largely alienated. Following indecisive results, Carol used his prerogative to call in a PNC minority government, under Goga. This act surprised Vaida, who was sure that no explicitly antisemitic party would ever be let into government by Carol. Since he had been overlooked by Carol, he reportedly resumed his negotiations with Maniu, and proposed himself as chairman of the reunified PNȚ. In parallel, he agreed to collaborate with the PNC, but asked that he lead the coalition cabinet; this notion was rejected by Goga. Goga also courted the Guard, but was swiftly refused, which led to campaigns of violence on both sides. Vaida was horrified by this outcome, and spoke out publicly against Guardist agitation, ridiculing its slogans. During its brief period in government, the PNC modified the electoral law to limit representation for smaller parties, hoping to attract the FR into a merger; Vaida refused, but Ioanițescu agreed, bringing the entire
Old Kingdom In ancient Egyptian history, the Old Kingdom is the period spanning c. 2700–2200 BC. It is also known as the "Age of the Pyramids" or the "Age of the Pyramid Builders", as it encompasses the reigns of the great pyramid-builders of the Fourth ...
sections of the FR under Goga's control. The pact also created tensions within the PNC itself, since it required Goga's followers to also accept reconciliation with Potârcă. As a consequence, PNC radicals staged an anti-Potârcă riot in
Craiova Craiova (, also , ), is Romania's 6th Cities in Romania, largest city and capital of Dolj County, and situated near the east bank of the river Jiu River, Jiu in central Oltenia. It is a longstanding political center, and is located at approximatel ...
. In January 1938, the PNȚ newspaper '' Facla'' reported that "the Vaidist party" had lost all credit with the public, and was "morally supporting" the PNC. According to the same source, the FR's ''fripturiști'' ("parasites") were pressing Vaida to accept complete merger. Vaida's cooperation with Goga ended abruptly on January 15, when the former withdrew parliamentary support, noting that Goga "endangers the true nationalist principles." Goga himself publicly celebrated Ioanițescu's induction, boasting that the PNC government had effected the desired fusion of right-wing groups. He referred to the cabinet as a "National-Christian, Peasantist, Romanian union". Serving Goga as Interior Minister, Călinescu prepared new electoral regulations for the national vote, scheduled for March 1. His system outlawed political symbols of any kind, and assigned the competing lists a number of dots (or "eyes"), depending purely on the order of applications received—the Vaidists had three. The law was described by Mihalache as a "swindle" which borrowed and manipulated the electoral customs of
Siam Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is bo ...
, and was intended to confuse voters; Maniu called on the
Court of Cassation A court of cassation is a high-instance court that exists in some judicial systems. Courts of cassation do not re-examine the facts of a case, they only interpret the relevant law. In this they are appellate courts of the highest instance. In th ...
to overrule it, and asked for the FR to be cited as a witness.


Demise

On January 24, the FR reached an agreement with the PNȚ and the Iron Guard, whereby the three groups would distribute their parliamentary seats on a parity basis. The Electoral Commission revised its decision on January 29, when it assigned three dots to the PNȚ, and four to the FR. Vaida received visits from two PNȚ militants,
Grigore Gafencu Grigore Gafencu (; January 30, 1892 – January 30, 1957) was a Romanian politician, diplomat and journalist. Political career Gafencu was born in Bârlad. He studied law and received his Ph.D. in law from the University of Bucharest. During ...
and Mihail Ghelmegeanu, who pushed for a reunification of the two groups. ''Patria'', a PNȚ newspaper, reported that a fusion was planned to take place before February 1. On that day, Dragomirescu informed the public that the FR would continue as an independent group, in the process of reorganizing itself, and ready to collaborate with the PNC government. He reported that the Front was now divided into regional chapters. He himself was leader of the Western Moldavian chapters; Angelescu, Nițescu and Cândea respectively chaired over the Old-Kingdom (excluding Moldavia), Transylvania, and
Bukovina Bukovinagerman: Bukowina or ; hu, Bukovina; pl, Bukowina; ro, Bucovina; uk, Буковина, ; see also other languages. is a historical region, variously described as part of either Central or Eastern Europe (or both).Klaus Peter Berge ...
sections. ''Patria'' reported that Argetoianu and his Agrarian Union Party had engaged the Vaidists in talks to form an electoral cartel. Mirto had resigned from the FR during the final days of January, citing as his reason "Mr Vaida's duplicitous policy toward the nationalist government which is presided upon by Mr Goga." On February 10, after "sham consultations" with Vaida and other opposition leaders, Carol toppled Goga and set up a government of his choice, under Patriarch Miron. Six former FR politicos, beginning with Ioanițescu, became ministers of that cabinet. The FR's strategists proposed to Carol that he outlaw all parties that were not explicitly monarchist; among their competitors, Călinescu proposed that these be merged into a single-party system. Vaida examined the option and remained a skeptic, since he believed Romanians were essentially unruly and too "
Byzantine The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
" to accept discipline and a unified command. In one of its final manifestos, penned by Nițescu, the FR had noted that Germany could not be trusted to guarantee Romania's borders, and that the "old alliances and friendships", including the
Little Entente The Little Entente was an alliance formed in 1920 and 1921 by Czechoslovakia, Romania and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (since 1929 Yugoslavia) with the purpose of common defense against Hungarian revanchism and the prospect of a ...
, still worked best for Romania. Nițescu also noted that solving the "
Jewish question The Jewish question, also referred to as the Jewish problem, was a wide-ranging debate in 19th- and 20th-century European society that pertained to the appropriate status and treatment of Jews. The debate, which was similar to other "national ...
" could be done without German intrusion, and that antisemitism was important to the FR only as a facet of its "anti-alienism". Formal disestablishment came on March 30, 1938. In the end, both the FR and PNC were officially subsumed by the National Renaissance Front (FRN) when Carol chose in favor of Călinescu's more dictatorial project. This catch-all group emerged in December 1938, and had six FR men signed on among the 53 founding members. One of them was Vaida himself, who noted: "I have the greatest spiritual satisfaction that, having submitted to the legal requirement of dissolving the 'Romanian Front', I witness HRH Carol II's 'National Renaissance Front', a new
Phoenix Phoenix most often refers to: * Phoenix (mythology), a legendary bird from ancient Greek folklore * Phoenix, Arizona, a city in the United States Phoenix may also refer to: Mythology Greek mythological figures * Phoenix (son of Amyntor), a ...
, emerging from its ashes and those of other patriotic and well-meaning entities." He became critical of his peers in January 1939, when he noted that the ''numerus'' policy had been proclaimed, but never enforced, and that a ban on the Jewish liquor trade was not fully imposed. With the FRN takeover, Tilea became Carol's ambassador in the United Kingdom, trying to salvage the British–Romanian alliance in the face of German encroachment. During an international incident of March 1939, he warned that Germany would invade and carve-up Romania. Brudariu similarly accepted FRN offices, but expressed his dissidence, which was increasingly leftist and anti-fascist in tone. Carol encouraged Vaida to hope that the FR and other groups would be reestablished as the
loyal opposition Loyal opposition in terms of politics, refers to specific political concepts that are related to the opposition parties of a particular political system. In many Westminster-style parliamentary systems of government, the loyal opposition indicat ...
to the FRN, but he eventually allowed Călinescu to veto any such proposals. "Vaidists" were still acknowledged as an "intermediary group", or distinct FRN faction, during the sham elections of June 1939, though Călinescu took pains to prevent their interference with the electoral process. One-time FR affiliates were the plurality of FRN leadership cadres in
Cluj ; hu, kincses város) , official_name=Cluj-Napoca , native_name= , image_skyline= , subdivision_type1 = County , subdivision_name1 = Cluj County , subdivision_type2 = Status , subdivision_name2 = County seat , settlement_type = City , le ...
and Hunedoara counties. Upon his electoral validation, Vaida became Chamber President through
acclamation An acclamation is a form of election that does not use a ballot. It derives from the ancient Roman word ''acclamatio'', a kind of ritual greeting and expression of approval towards imperial officials in certain social contexts. Voting Voice vot ...
, subsequently helping to pass legislation that introduced protectionism and banned workers' strikes.Gheorghe & Șerbu, p. 229 He took a conciliatory line in his discourse on minorities, arguing that these needed to be "kept on our side"; his stance was welcomed by the Hungarian deputy Ádám Teleki. Over that interval, Călinescu oversaw a repression of the Iron Guard, which resulted in him being assassinated by another Guardist death squad in September 1939. Immediately after, Vaida was considered for the position of Prime Minister ''ad interim'', but lost to Gheorghe Argeșanu. From January 1940, Vaida was also FRN Chairman. In private, he derided this arrangement, noting that "renaissance" was a misnomer: "all the old politicians are today eminences of the ational RenaissanceFront." In contrast to Tilea, Vaida accepted Nazi demands and, in 1940, acknowledged the Nazi-imposed cession of
Northern Transylvania Northern Transylvania ( ro, Transilvania de Nord, hu, Észak-Erdély) was the region of the Kingdom of Romania that during World War II, as a consequence of the August 1940 territorial agreement known as the Second Vienna Award, became part of ...
to Hungary. Almost uniquely among Carol's advisers, he also recommended a population exchange. Attempting to steer Romania close to Germany, Carol was again considering Vaida, widely seen as a Nazi favorite, for the Romanian premiership. The FR's former leadership took different paths during the later stages of World War II. In late 1940, the FRN regime was replaced by the Iron Guard's
National Legionary State The National Legionary State was a Totalitarianism, totalitarian Fascism, fascist regime which governed Kingdom of Romania, Romania for five months, from 14 September 1940 until its official dissolution on 14 February 1941. The regime was led by ...
, which was aligned with Nazism. Tilea refused to return home, and organized a pro-
Allied An alliance is a relationship among people, groups, or states that have joined together for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose, whether or not explicit agreement has been worked out among them. Members of an alliance are called ...
Romanian lobby in London, also reaching out to the PNȚ opposition. Vaida remained in Romania during the interval. He was detained after the pro-Allied coup of 1944, and died in March 1950 while under house arrest in
Sibiu Sibiu ( , , german: link=no, Hermannstadt , la, Cibinium, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Härmeschtat'', hu, Nagyszeben ) is a city in Romania, in the historical region of Transylvania. Located some north-west of Bucharest, the city straddles the Ci ...
. By then, Potârcă had emerged as a spokesman of the former FR, leading some of its members back into the PNȚ.Rădulescu, p. 65 In 1945–1946, former FR activist Hațieganu became the last-ever PNȚ man in government, serving as
minister without portfolio A minister without portfolio is either a government minister with no specific responsibilities or a minister who does not head a particular ministry. The sinecure is particularly common in countries ruled by coalition governments and a cabinet w ...
under
Petru Groza Petru Groza (7 December 1884 – 7 January 1958) was an Austro-Hungarian-born Romanian politician, best known as the first Prime Minister of the Communist Party-dominated government under Soviet occupation during the early stages of the Commu ...
. In January 1945, communist Iosif Ardeleanu publicized his critique of Maniu as a man under "fascist influence", as shown by his cultivating Vaidists and Iron Guard defectors. Mirto was allowed back into the PNȚ, but defected again in May 1946, before the parliamentary election in November. He joined the Alexandrescu Peasantists and was allowed into the communist-run Bloc of Democratic Parties, while Potârcă became one of its prominent critics. After 1948, a
communist regime A communist state, also known as a Marxist–Leninist state, is a one-party state that is administered and governed by a communist party guided by Marxism–Leninism. Marxism–Leninism was the state ideology of the Soviet Union, the Cominte ...
proceeded to investigate and imprison various other figures associated with the FR. In 1950, a "screening" campaign at the Ministry of Metallurgy expelled from the Communist Party a certain Botez, who had been found to be a former magistrate and FR affiliate. After having returned into PNȚ ranks, Vlad was arrested and sent to
Sighet prison The Sighet prison, located in the city of Sighetu Marmației, Maramureș County, Romania, was used by Romania to hold criminals, prisoners of war, and political prisoners. It is now the site of the Sighet Memorial Museum, part of the Memorial ...
, where he died in July 1953. Romulus Rusan
"Elitele Unirii exterminate în închisori"
in ''
Revista 22 ''Revista 22'' (''22 Magazine'') is a Romanian weekly magazine, issued by the Group for Social Dialogue and focused mainly on politics and culture. History and profile ''Revista 22'' was started in 1990. The first edition of the magazine was prin ...
'', Nr. 977, November–December 2008
Potârcă was tortured and died in similar circumstances the following year; Hațieganu and Sever Dan were also held at Sighet, but both survived. Brudariu was initially accepted into Groza's
Ploughmen's Front The Ploughmen's Front ( ro, Frontul Plugarilor) was a Romanian left-wing agrarian-inspired political organisation of ploughmen, founded at Deva in 1933 and led by Petru Groza. At its peak in 1946, the Front had over 1 million members. Histor ...
, but came unde investigation in 1956. He was released from prison upon Groza's intervention in 1958, but died shortly after. While Buzdugan evaded arrest by going into hiding, Iovipale spent time in
Pitești prison Pitești Prison ( ro, Închisoarea Pitești) was a penal facility in Pitești, Romania, best remembered for the Mind control, reeducation experiment (also known as ''Experimentul Pitești'' – the "Pitești Experiment" or ''Fenomenul Pitești'' ...
, and died while on probation in 1964. By contrast, his colleague Lepădătescu was promoted to high office within the
Securitate The Securitate (, Romanian for ''security'') was the popular term for the Departamentul Securității Statului (Department of State Security), the secret police agency of the Socialist Republic of Romania. Previously, before the communist regime ...
, and helped to prosecute National Peasantist opponents of the regime.Pătrașcu, pp. 190–191


Notes


References

{{Historical Romanian political parties Defunct political parties in Romania Fascist parties in Romania Romanian nationalist parties Monarchist parties in Romania Corporatism Protectionism Antisemitism in Romania Anti-Masonry Political parties established in 1935 Political parties disestablished in 1938 1935 establishments in Romania 1938 disestablishments in Romania