Rice production in China
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Rice production in China is the amount of
rice Rice is the seed of the grass species ''Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice) or less commonly ''Oryza glaberrima ''Oryza glaberrima'', commonly known as African rice, is one of the two domesticated rice species. It was first domesticated and grown i ...
planted, grown, and harvested for consumption in the mainland of
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
. It is an important part of the national economy, where it is the world’s largest producer of rice, making up of 30% of global rice production. It produces the highest rice yields in Asia, at . Rice is produced throughout the nation and is believed to have been first
domesticated Domestication is a sustained multi-generational relationship in which humans assume a significant degree of control over the reproduction and care of another group of organisms to secure a more predictable supply of resources from that group. A ...
in the surrounding regions of the
Yangtze River The Yangtze or Yangzi ( or ; ) is the longest list of rivers of Asia, river in Asia, the list of rivers by length, third-longest in the world, and the longest in the world to flow entirely within one country. It rises at Jari Hill in th ...
and the Yunnan-Guizhou highlands of Southern China. Rice is believed to have been first cultivated around the Yangtze River Valley and
Yellow River The Yellow River or Huang He (Chinese: , Standard Beijing Mandarin, Mandarin: ''Huáng hé'' ) is the second-longest river in China, after the Yangtze River, and the List of rivers by length, sixth-longest river system in the world at th ...
11,000 years ago, found upon clustering in the middle of the Yangtze River in the provinces of Hubei and Hunan in central China according to archaeological records. The planting techniques of rice production in China encapsulates techniques such as water loss prevention such as turning soil into mud, and also seed transplantation. The main variants of rice produced and grown in China encapsulates wild rice species of O. Mereriana, O. Officinalis and O. Rufipogon and the main Chinese cultivated rice varieties are ''indica'' and ''japonica'' subspecies, with ongoing developments of rice breeding in
hybrid rice Hybrid rice is a type of Asian rice that has been crossbred from two very different parent varieties. As with other types of hybrids, hybrid rice typically displays heterosis or "hybrid vigor", so when grown under the same conditions as comparable p ...
 established by the Ministry of Agriculture in China. The subspecies of the Indica and Japonica rice are produced in different, and some in overlapping regions across China, with the hybrid rice predominantly growing in the region of Central China. There are many geographical regions across China for rice production. The geographical setting in the rice production regions across China highlights different climates (subtropical, cold, and dry), growing periods and soils which is what makes the rice varieties distinct from one another. The geographical setting is what delineates the different planting and harvesting seasons of rice variants in the regions. Rice production in China is labour-intensive, and is dependent on a variety of cropping and
planting Sowing is the process of planting seeds. An area or object that has had seeds planted in it will be described as a sowed or sown area. Plants which are usually sown Among the major field crops, oats, wheat, and rye are sown, grasses and leg ...
methods. The processes of production in cropping systems vary across the regions of China due to the differences in climate in each growing region. The predominant processes of rice production in planting methods that are in use in China includes,
transplanting In agriculture and gardening, transplanting or replanting is the technique of moving a plant from one location to another. Most often this takes the form of starting a plant from seed in optimal conditions, such as in a greenhouse or protected Pl ...
, manual transplanting, mechanical transplanting, throwing seeding,
direct seeding Sowing is the process of planting seeds. An area or object that has had seeds planted in it will be described as a sowed or sown area. Plants which are usually sown Among the major field crops, oats, wheat, and rye are sown, grasses and leg ...
, as well as rice ratooning. Under differences and changes in the selection of rice varieties and cultivation techniques under various planting methods, this highlights the differences in terms of rice quality. Due to changes in recent decades in all aspects, this has led to the changes in planting areas across China for rice production. In terms of
exports An export in international trade is a good produced in one country that is sold into another country or a service provided in one country for a national or resident of another country. The seller of such goods or the service provider is an ...
, China has exported 4.56% of the world’s rice in 2019, with a value of US$1.13 billion. As of 2020/2021, it is the sixth principal rice exporter in the world behind India, Vietnam, Thailand, Pakistan and the United States. The rice production in China over recent years has faced challenges. These challenges encapsulates climate change that has brought increased frequencies of
natural disaster A natural disaster is "the negative impact following an actual occurrence of natural hazard in the event that it significantly harms a community". A natural disaster can cause loss of life or damage property, and typically leaves some econ ...
s, overuse of
fertiliser A fertilizer (American English) or fertiliser (British English; see spelling differences) is any material of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soil or to plant tissues to supply plant nutrients. Fertilizers may be distinct from ...
s that leads to a decline in the fertility of land, as well as, overuse of
pesticide Pesticides are substances that are meant to control pests. This includes herbicide, insecticide, nematicide, molluscicide, piscicide, avicide, rodenticide, bactericide, insect repellent, animal repellent, microbicide, fungicide, and lampri ...
s that promotes changes in
biodiversity Biodiversity or biological diversity is the variety and variability of life on Earth. Biodiversity is a measure of variation at the genetic (''genetic variability''), species (''species diversity''), and ecosystem (''ecosystem diversity'') l ...
leading to increased pest outbreaks. The future of rice production in China is one that encapsulates elite germaplasm, genetic diversity, and the super rice breeding programs to promote tolerance to the current challenges. The future prospects of integrated rice cultivation systems is to be further developed in assistance of current agricultural systems and databases to manage current challenges. Moreover, lowering water-usage is also a future prospect to be delved into. Rice is highly prized by consumers as a food grain, making it a
staple food A staple food, food staple, or simply a staple, is a food that is eaten often and in such quantities that it constitutes a dominant portion of a standard diet for a given person or group of people, supplying a large fraction of energy needs and ...
for two-thirds of the nation. Produced rice grains that have numerous flavours, textures, and grains, each with unique differentiating forms and distinct qualities can be made into a variety of foods that are prominent in China. Out of all, one type that is renowned across the world is
cooked rice Cooked rice refers to rice that has been cooked either by steaming or boiling. The terms steamed rice or boiled rice are also commonly used. Any variant of Asian rice (both Indica and Japonica varieties), African rice or wild rice, glutinous ...
, which can encapsulate both rice porridge and
fried rice Fried rice is a dish of cooked rice that has been stir-fried in a wok or a frying pan and is usually mixed with other ingredients such as eggs, vegetables, seafood, or meat. It is often eaten by itself or as an accompaniment to another dish. Fr ...
. Rice grained and ground can be made into
noodle Noodles are a type of food made from unleavened dough which is either rolled flat and cut, stretched, or extruded, into long strips or strings. Noodles are a staple food in many cultures (for example, Chinese noodles, Filipino noodles, Indo ...
s. Glutinous sticky rice is also a form of rice that can be turned into a variety of dishes and desserts, as well as including alcoholic beverages and rice brans.


History


Wild rice and its domestication

China is among the bulk of significant domestication centres and originating rice regions worldwide. The surrounding regions of the Yangtze River and the Yunnan-Guizhou highland of Southern China are the domestication centres with varying evidence derived from the belief that wild rice is primarily found in Southern China, where the Yangtze River is predominantly situated. China's Yunnan-Guizhou highland consists of more than 10,000 rice landraces, and the three wild rice species (O. Rufipogon, O. Officinalis, and O. Mereriana) commonly exist and is identified as the site of the highest genetic diversity.  Over time, these varieties evolved under environmental and cropping conditions into O. Sativa and the subspecies of japonica and indica consumed today. Additionally, as more rice phytoliths are detected in sites of Hemudu, Diaotonghuan, Xianrendong, and Shangshan – all parts surrounding the Yangtze River, it is these regions that are of the geographical domestication origin of wild rice in China. According to archaeological records, rice was first domesticated in areas surrounding the Yangtze River Valley and the Yellow River around 7000 BC. These areas housed
Neolithic The Neolithic period, or New Stone Age, is an Old World archaeological period and the final division of the Stone Age. It saw the Neolithic Revolution, a wide-ranging set of developments that appear to have arisen independently in several parts ...
sites like
Hemudu The Hemudu culture (5500 BC to 3300 BC) was a Neolithic culture that flourished just south of the Hangzhou Bay in Jiangnan in modern Yuyao, Zhejiang, China. The culture may be divided into early and late phases, before and after 4000 BC respecti ...
(6800-5000 BC), Luojiajiao (5100-4000 BC), Caoxieshan (4200-3900 BC) and
Songze The Songze Culture was a Neolithic culture that existed between 3800 and 3300 BCE in the Lake Tai area near Shanghai. Dates Three radiocarbon dates were taken from Songze culture layers at Jiangli near Lake Tai. Two of the dates were obtained fr ...
(circa 4000 BC). Older rice remains have been found in Yuchanyan (13000-6000 BC), Xianrendong and Diaotonghuan (12000-9000 BC). The domestication of rice was observed through the loss of colour and seed shattering, lower rates of seed dormancy and changes in seed shape. Cultivated forms of ''phuddi'' rice are of domestic origin, whilst ''indica'' rice appear to be of mixed origin, via domestication throughout
South South is one of the cardinal directions or Points of the compass, compass points. The direction is the opposite of north and is perpendicular to both east and west. Etymology The word ''south'' comes from Old English ''sūþ'', from earlier Pro ...
and
Southeast Asia Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, south-eastern region of Asia, consistin ...
. Wild rice in China is believed to have been harvested by individuals over millennia and then transitioned into domesticated rice. Early farmers employed fire, bones and wooden spades to clear
marsh A marsh is a wetland that is dominated by herbaceous rather than woody plant species.Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 497 p Marshes can often be found at ...
es of reeds in order to establish
rice paddy A paddy field is a flooded field of arable land used for growing semiaquatic crops, most notably rice and taro. It originates from the Neolithic rice-farming cultures of the Yangtze River basin in southern China, associated with pre-Au ...
fields.


Rice cultivation

Rice has been cultivated in China for over 10000 years. The first record of rice has been linked to mythological texts such as ''Guan Zi'' from the Shen-Nong era, part of the
Xia dynasty The Xia dynasty () is the first dynasty in traditional Chinese historiography. According to tradition, the Xia dynasty was established by the legendary Yu the Great, after Shun, the last of the Five Emperors, gave the throne to him. In tradi ...
in the 21st century BC. In antiquity, ''japonica'' rice was named ''Jing'' or ''Keng'', ''indica'' rice was named ''Xian'' or ''Hsien'', whilst
glutinous rice Glutinous rice (''Oryza sativa var. glutinosa''; also called sticky rice, sweet rice or waxy rice) is a type of rice grown mainly in Southeast and East Asia, and the northeastern regions of South Asia, which has opaque grains, very low amylose ...
was named ''Nuodao''. As modern researchers uncover archaeological records of rice, it is revealed that rice was first cultivated within the middle of the Yangtze River in central China. Archaeological evidence in this finding drew upon collecting “samples of radiocarbon data on rice grains, husks, plant remains, and impressions of rice grain in pottery drawn from more than one hundred sites along the 6300-kilometre Yangtze River.”  The oldest sample collected comprised a median age of 11,000 years, found upon clustering in the middle of the Yangtze River in the provinces of Hubei and Hunan in central China.  In comparison, samples collected from the upstream and downstream regions are ordinarily younger, ranging from 4000 to 10,000 years.  Researchers uncovered this pattern, suggesting that rice cultivation originated in the middle of the Yangtze River and has since spread from there.


Planting techniques

Techniques such as turning soil into mud to prevent water loss, as well as seed transplantation have been traced back to China. Both techniques encouraged the domestication of ''phuddi'' and indica variants, and are still utilised in Chinese rice production today.


Rice variants


Wild rice

There are three species of
wild rice Wild rice, also called manoomin, Canada rice, Indian rice, or water oats, is any of four species of grasses that form the genus ''Zizania'', and the grain that can be harvested from them. The grain was historically gathered and eaten in both ...
in China, ''O. mereriana'', ''O. officinalis'' and ''O. rufipogon''. The last is the most common, spanning from
Taiwan Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the nort ...
and across China. Wild rice is commonly found in marshlands,
hill A hill is a landform that extends above the surrounding terrain. It often has a distinct Summit (topography), summit. Terminology The distinction between a hill and a mountain is unclear and largely subjective, but a hill is universally con ...
s and low grasslands. Archaeological records note common variants of wild rice were planted in
Central Central is an adjective usually referring to being in the center of some place or (mathematical) object. Central may also refer to: Directions and generalised locations * Central Africa, a region in the centre of Africa continent, also known as ...
and
Southern China South China () is a geographical and cultural region that covers the southernmost part of China. Its precise meaning varies with context. A notable feature of South China in comparison to the rest of China is that most of its citizens are not n ...
in antiquity. Due to increased human activity over the years, there has been a 70% decrease of ''O. rufipogon'' across China compared to the 1950s.


Chinese cultivated varieties

Cultivated varieties are noted to have originated in areas near the Yangtze and
Huai The Huai River (), formerly romanized as the Hwai, is a major river in China. It is located about midway between the Yellow River and Yangtze, the two longest rivers and largest drainage basins in China, and like them runs from west to east. ...
rivers. From these areas, wild, ancient varieties spread through environmental and cropping conditions. Over time, these varieties evolved and were domesticated into ''O. sativa'' subspecies ''japonica'' and ''indica''.


Rice breeding

Hybrid rice breeding seeks to improve yield and adaptation in response to demand and environmental challenges and was introduced in the 1970s by
Yuan Longping Yuan Longping (; September 7, 1930May 22, 2021) was a Chinese agronomist and member of the Chinese Academy of Engineering known for developing the first hybrid rice varieties in the 1970s, part of the Green Revolution in agriculture. For his ...
. In 1996, the Super Rice Project was spearheaded by the Ministry of Agriculture, combining ''japonica'' and ''indica'' subspecies. However, this breeding process is time-consuming and has affected the growth of the breeding program and available rice variants.


Subspecies throughout the regions


Japonica

Japonica plants are small and have dark green leaves. Its grains are round and short and do not break easily. Due to its high levels of
amylopectin Amylopectin is a water-insoluble polysaccharide and highly branched polymer of α-glucose units found in plants. It is one of the two components of starch, the other being amylose. Plants store starch within specialized organelles called amylopl ...
, grains are moist and sticky when cooked. Japonica is found in cool and temperate climates.


Indica

Indica plants are tall and have light green leaves. Its grains can range from short to long, narrow and flat, and can break easily. Due to its lower levels of amylopectin, grains are flakier and drier than japonica variants.


Subspecies and their growing regions

* ''Japonica'' subspecies are predominant throughout Regions 2, 3, 5 and 6. * ''Indica'' subspecies are predominant throughout Regions 1, 2, 3 and 4 * ''Hybrid'' variants of ''Indica'' are grown in Region 2.


Geographical setting


Growing regions

Region 1:
Southern China South China () is a geographical and cultural region that covers the southernmost part of China. Its precise meaning varies with context. A notable feature of South China in comparison to the rest of China is that most of its citizens are not n ...
This region includes southern areas of
Guizhou Guizhou (; formerly Kweichow) is a landlocked province in the southwest region of the People's Republic of China. Its capital and largest city is Guiyang, in the center of the province. Guizhou borders the autonomous region of Guangxi to t ...
,
Guangdong Guangdong (, ), alternatively romanized as Canton or Kwangtung, is a coastal province in South China on the north shore of the South China Sea. The capital of the province is Guangzhou. With a population of 126.01 million (as of 2020) ...
,
Guangxi Guangxi (; ; Chinese postal romanization, alternately romanized as Kwanghsi; ; za, Gvangjsih, italics=yes), officially the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region (GZAR), is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the People's Republic ...
and
Fujian Fujian (; alternately romanized as Fukien or Hokkien) is a province on the southeastern coast of China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, Guangdong to the south, and the Taiwan Strait to the east. Its capi ...
and
Hainan Hainan (, ; ) is the smallest and southernmost province of the People's Republic of China (PRC), consisting of various islands in the South China Sea. , the largest and most populous island in China,The island of Taiwan, which is slightly l ...
provinces as well as
Taiwan Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the nort ...
. This region is subtropical and predominantly grows ''indica'' rice. Region 2:
Central China Central China () is a geographical and a loosely defined cultural region that includes the provinces of Henan, Hubei and Hunan. Jiangxi is sometimes also regarded to be part of this region. Central China is now officially part of South Central ...
The largest region in terms of rice production, spanning from the
Chengdu Plain The Chengdu Plain (Chinese: 成都平原; Pinyin: Chéngdū Píngyuán), known as Cuanxi Bazi (Chinese: 川西坝子; Sichuanese Pinyin: Cuan1xi1 Ba4zi3) in Sichuanese, is an alluvial plain located in the western part of the Sichuan Basin in sout ...
s in the west to the eastern coast, from the Huai River in the north to the
Nanling Mountains The Nanling (), also known as the Wuling (), is a major mountain range in Southern China that separates the Pearl River Basin from the Yangtze Valley and serves as the dividing line between south and central subtropical zones. The main range ...
in the south. It also includes parts or all of
Hubei Hubei (; ; alternately Hupeh) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, and is part of the Central China region. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Dongting Lake. The prov ...
,
Hunan Hunan (, ; ) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the South Central China region. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it borders the province-level divisions of Hubei to the north, Jiangxi to ...
,
Jiangxi Jiangxi (; ; formerly romanized as Kiangsi or Chianghsi) is a landlocked province in the east of the People's Republic of China. Its major cities include Nanchang and Jiujiang. Spanning from the banks of the Yangtze river in the north int ...
,
Anhui Anhui , (; formerly romanized as Anhwei) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the East China region. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze River ...
,
Zhejiang Zhejiang ( or , ; , also romanized as Chekiang) is an eastern, coastal province of the People's Republic of China. Its capital and largest city is Hangzhou, and other notable cities include Ningbo and Wenzhou. Zhejiang is bordered by Jiang ...
,
Jiangsu Jiangsu (; ; pinyin: Jiāngsū, Postal romanization, alternatively romanized as Kiangsu or Chiangsu) is an Eastern China, eastern coastal Provinces of the People's Republic of China, province of the China, People's Republic of China. It is o ...
provinces and suburbs of
Chongqing Chongqing ( or ; ; Sichuanese dialects, Sichuanese pronunciation: , Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ), Postal Romanization, alternately romanized as Chungking (), is a Direct-administered municipalities of China, municipality in Southwes ...
and
Shanghai Shanghai (; , , Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ) is one of the four direct-administered municipalities of the People's Republic of China (PRC). The city is located on the southern estuary of the Yangtze River, with the Huangpu River flow ...
. This region is subtropical and predominantly grows ''Indica,'' hybrid variants of ''indica'' and ''japonica'' rice. Region 3: Southwestern plateau Includes parts or all of
Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...
,
Sichuan Sichuan (; zh, c=, labels=no, ; zh, p=Sìchuān; alternatively romanized as Szechuan or Szechwan; formerly also referred to as "West China" or "Western China" by Protestant missions) is a province in Southwest China occupying most of the ...
,
Qinghai Qinghai (; alternately romanized as Tsinghai, Ch'inghai), also known as Kokonor, is a landlocked province in the northwest of the People's Republic of China. It is the fourth largest province of China by area and has the third smallest po ...
,
Yunnan Yunnan , () is a landlocked Provinces of China, province in Southwest China, the southwest of the People's Republic of China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 48.3 million (as of 2018). The capital of the province is ...
,
Guangxi Guangxi (; ; Chinese postal romanization, alternately romanized as Kwanghsi; ; za, Gvangjsih, italics=yes), officially the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region (GZAR), is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the People's Republic ...
,
Hunan Hunan (, ; ) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the South Central China region. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it borders the province-level divisions of Hubei to the north, Jiangxi to ...
,
Guizhou Guizhou (; formerly Kweichow) is a landlocked province in the southwest region of the People's Republic of China. Its capital and largest city is Guiyang, in the center of the province. Guizhou borders the autonomous region of Guangxi to t ...
provinces as well as the
Qingyang Qingyang () is a prefecture-level city in eastern Gansu province, China. Geography and climate Qingyang is the easternmost prefecture-level division of Gansu and is thus sometimes referred to as "Longdong" (). It forms an administrative penins ...
and Yungui Plateaus. This region is subtropical and predominantly grows ''japonica'' and ''indica'' rice. Region 4:
Northern China Northern China () and Southern China () are two approximate regions within China. The exact boundary between these two regions is not precisely defined and only serve to depict where there appears to be regional differences between the climate ...
Bordered by the
Qinling Mountains The Qinling () or Qin Mountains, formerly known as the Nanshan ("Southern Mountains"), are a major east–west mountain range in southern Shaanxi Province, China. The mountains mark the divide between the drainage basins of the Yangtze and Yellow ...
, the Yellow River in the south, the
Great Wall The Great Wall of China (, literally "ten thousand Li (unit), ''li'' wall") is a series of fortifications that were built across the historical northern borders of ancient Chinese states and Imperial China as protection against Eurasian noma ...
in the north, and bordered in the west by the Shanxi Plains. It also includes the entirety of
Beijing } Beijing ( ; ; ), alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the capital of the People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's most populous national capital city, with over 21 ...
,
Shandong Shandong ( , ; ; alternately romanized as Shantung) is a coastal province of the People's Republic of China and is part of the East China region. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history since the beginning of Chinese civilizati ...
and
Tianjin Tianjin (; ; Mandarin: ), alternately romanized as Tientsin (), is a municipality and a coastal metropolis in Northern China on the shore of the Bohai Sea. It is one of the nine national central cities in Mainland China, with a total popul ...
, and parts of Anhui,
Shaanxi Shaanxi (alternatively Shensi, see #Name, § Name) is a landlocked Provinces of China, province of China. Officially part of Northwest China, it borders the province-level divisions of Shanxi (NE, E), Henan (E), Hubei (SE), Chongqing (S), Sichu ...
, Jiangsu,
Shanxi Shanxi (; ; formerly romanised as Shansi) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China and is part of the North China region. The capital and largest city of the province is Taiyuan, while its next most populated prefecture-lev ...
,
Henan Henan (; or ; ; alternatively Honan) is a landlocked province of China, in the central part of the country. Henan is often referred to as Zhongyuan or Zhongzhou (), which literally means "central plain" or "midland", although the name is al ...
and
Hebei Hebei or , (; alternately Hopeh) is a northern province of China. Hebei is China's sixth most populous province, with over 75 million people. Shijiazhuang is the capital city. The province is 96% Han Chinese, 3% Manchu, 0.8% Hui, an ...
provinces. This region is subtropical and predominantly grows ''indica'' rice. Region 5:
Northeastern China Northeast China or Northeastern China () is a geographical region of China, which is often referred to as "Manchuria" or "Inner Manchuria" by surrounding countries and the West. It usually corresponds specifically to the three provinces east of t ...
Includes
Jilin Jilin (; alternately romanized as Kirin or Chilin) is one of the three provinces of Northeast China. Its capital and largest city is Changchun. Jilin borders North Korea (Rasŏn, North Hamgyong, Ryanggang and Chagang) and Russia (Prim ...
and
Heilongjiang Heilongjiang () formerly romanized as Heilungkiang, is a province in northeast China. The standard one-character abbreviation for the province is (). It was formerly romanized as "Heilungkiang". It is the northernmost and easternmost province ...
, as well as
Liaoning Liaoning () is a coastal province in Northeast China that is the smallest, southernmost, and most populous province in the region. With its capital at Shenyang, it is located on the northern shore of the Yellow Sea, and is the northernmost ...
and
Inner Mongolia Inner Mongolia, officially the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. Its border includes most of the length of China's border with the country of Mongolia. Inner Mongolia also accounts for a ...
. This region has the coldest climate out of all the growing regions, with temperatures averaging between . It predominantly grows ''indica'' rice Region 6:
Northwestern China Northwest China () is a statistical region of China which includes the autonomous regions of Xinjiang and Ningxia and the provinces of Shaanxi, Gansu and Qinghai. It has an area of 3,107,900 km2. The region is characterized by a (semi-)arid cont ...
Includes
Ningxia Ningxia (,; , ; alternately romanized as Ninghsia), officially the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region (NHAR), is an autonomous region in the northwest of the People's Republic of China. Formerly a province, Ningxia was incorporated into Gansu in ...
and
Xinjiang Xinjiang, SASM/GNC: ''Xinjang''; zh, c=, p=Xīnjiāng; formerly romanized as Sinkiang (, ), officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR), is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China (PRC), located in the northwest ...
, most of Inner Mongolia and
Gansu Gansu (, ; alternately romanized as Kansu) is a province in Northwest China. Its capital and largest city is Lanzhou, in the southeast part of the province. The seventh-largest administrative district by area at , Gansu lies between the Tibet ...
, north-western sections of Liaoning as well as northern sections of Shaanxi, Qinghai and Hebei provinces. This is the driest out of all the regions and predominantly grows ''japonica'' rice.


Climate, growing periods and soils

Subtropical This climate is characterised by humidity and warm monsoons, long periods of growth between 180 and 365 days, cumulative temperatures between 2900 and 800 °C, precipitation levels between and 700–3000 hours of sunshine. Soil types within these regions include
brown Brown is a color. It can be considered a composite color, but it is mainly a darker shade of orange. In the CMYK color model used in printing or painting, brown is usually made by combining the colors orange and black. In the RGB color model used ...
,
red Red is the color at the long wavelength end of the visible spectrum of light, next to orange and opposite violet. It has a dominant wavelength of approximately 625–740 nanometres. It is a primary color in the RGB color model and a secondar ...
and yellow soils as well as
sediment Sediment is a naturally occurring material that is broken down by processes of weathering and erosion, and is subsequently transported by the action of wind, water, or ice or by the force of gravity acting on the particles. For example, sand an ...
ary and
alluvial Alluvium (from Latin ''alluvius'', from ''alluere'' 'to wash against') is loose clay, silt, sand, or gravel that has been deposited by running water in a stream bed, on a floodplain, in an alluvial fan or beach, or in similar settings. Alluv ...
soils. Cold Crops are susceptible to frost damage. Its cumulative temperature ranges between 2000 and 3700 °C, 350-1100mm of precipitation and 2200–3100 hours of sunshine. Soils in this region are fertile, which include variants such as meadow, down, black clod and saline-alkaline soils. Dry Low rates () of precipitation and water shortages. Due to this, soils lack fertility and are situated near irrigated farms and rivers.


Growing seasons

Early rice crops grow primarily in provinces along the Yangtze River and in provinces in the south, it is planted in February to April and harvested in June and July. Intermediate and single-crop late rice grows in the southwest and along the Yangtze, it is planted in March to June and harvested in October and November. All three crop types contribute about 34 percent to China's total rice output. Double-crop late rice, planted after the early crop is reaped, is harvested in October to November and adds about 25 percent to total rice production. Rice grown in the north is planted from April to June and harvested from September to October, it contributes about 7 percent to total production. As the climate becomes warmer, it becomes possible for rice cultivation to advance further north.


Production


Processes

Cropping systems Cropping systems vary across China due to differences in climate in each growing region. Single rice cropping is predominant in the North, accounting for 17% of the country's total rice production. Double rice cropping is mainly utilised in the South, accounting for 34% of the country's production rate. Whilst annual rice-upland crop rotation systems are commonly used in Central regions such as Hubei, Sichuan, Anhui and Jiangsu provinces, as well as near the Yangtze River Valley. Rice-upland systems generate 49% of the nation's rice production. Planting methods Planting methods depend on the environmental and socioeconomic conditions of a growing region. Common methods of planting include manual, throwing, mechanical, direct seeding (manual and mechanic) and
ratooning Ratooning is the agricultural practice of harvesting a monocot crop by cutting most of the above-ground portion but leaving the roots and the growing shoot apices intact so as to allow the plants to recover and produce a fresh crop in the next se ...
rice. Manual transplanting is declining in rural areas due to lack of skilled labour, it is common in areas with smaller land areas, high populations and higher rates of available labour. Direct-seeded rice (dry and wet seeding) has increased since the 1990s, taking up 10% of China's rice planting area in provinces such as Guangdong and
Xinjiang Xinjiang, SASM/GNC: ''Xinjang''; zh, c=, p=Xīnjiāng; formerly romanized as Sinkiang (, ), officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR), is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China (PRC), located in the northwest ...
. Transplanting is China's most common and elaborative rice crop establishment and production method. Transplanting is often done to achieve higher yields and more minor weeding fields, whilst ensuring a uniform rice plant stand.  Transplanting is where rice seedlings grown in a nursery are harvested and transplanted into puddled and levelled rice fields 15 to 20 days after the seedling,  some even for an extended
incubation period Incubation period (also known as the latent period or latency period) is the time elapsed between exposure to a pathogenic organism, a chemical, or radiation, and when symptoms and signs are first apparent. In a typical infectious disease, the i ...
. These rice seedlings can either be transplanted manually or mechanically. Manual transplanting is a traditional rice production method across China. Manual transplantation does not require costly machinery and is often performed in minor rice patch fields in labour surplus. Manual transplanting is often performed in rice patch fields with substandard levelling and varying water levels.  Seedlings by this method can be raised and adapted under any condition, whether wet, dry, or modified.  Given the adaptability flexibility of seedlings, manual transplanting tends to increase yields significantly in low fertility soils. Mechanical transplantation of rice is transplanting young rice seedlings using a rice transplanter. As the name suggests, direct seeding is the process of sowing rice seeds directly into the rice fields, either mechanically or manually.  Both mechanical transplantation and direct seeding of rice are pioneering rice planting methods and are commonly used during the rice-wheat rotation system. The convenience of direct seeding and mechanical transplanting method can be manifested in the rice planting area of the Jiangsu Province in China, which comprises 2.249 million hectares of land, encapsulating 55.9% of fields that use these methods interchangeably.  These two methods increase yearly due to labour and time-saving reasons and quickly and cost-effectively provide area
revegetation Revegetation is the process of replanting and rebuilding the soil of disturbed land. This may be a natural process produced by plant colonization and succession, manmade rewilding projects, accelerated process designed to repair damage to a land ...
. Throwing seedlings is an alternative planting method for rice production and is widespread due to savings on labour. This cultivation system provides another benefit of developing high-yield potential from reduced fertiliser inputs predominantly used over the past few decades in Southern China to raise yields, as was tested by scientists in Southern China rice patches along the Yangtze River. The method of the experiment is through an “appropriate increase in seedling density, and a concomitant decrease in
Nitrogen fertiliser A fertilizer (American English) or fertiliser (British English; see spelling differences) is any material of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soil or to plant tissues to supply plant nutrients. Fertilizers may be distinct from ...
input” that led to “problems with lodging, quality declines, and environmental pollution”. By increasing the seedling density by 32%, Nitrogen application can reduce by 18%.  As a result, an increase in seedling density created considerable amounts of effective panicles and glumous flowers on rice wheat whilst compensating for the decreased yield of individual plants from fertiliser. Hence, the method and experiment provide sustainable agriculture means in Southern China. Rice production in China is severely constrained by “excessive water consumption, labour shortage, large environmental footprint, and low economic profit” – this makes rice ratooning a favourable practice for production. From the former, rice ratooning is acquiring new crops from renewed tillers of the first crop, saving water consumption by taking advantage of the remaining water content from the first crop. From the latter, rice ratooning increases farmers’ profitability with sustainable efficiency and fewer reconstruction efforts on environmental damage and footprints than other rice planting methods. In addition, rice ratooning provides higher grain yield stemming from selecting cultivated high-yielding varieties and improving crop management over time. Hence, rice ratooning gradually became favourable and forms the majority of the rice production system across China.


Quality

There are differences and changes in the selection of rice varieties and cultivation techniques under various planting methods. Therefore, selecting good-quality rice is "necessary to promote the development of high-quality rice industry and enhance the rice industry's comprehensive strength in China." Rice quality comes from processing, appearance, consumption, and essential nutritional quality. Therefore, the formation of rice quality stems from a range of aftermath processing factors and not only from the inherent characteristics of the different varieties of rice grains.  However, factors in the natural environment in rice production regions, such as soil conditions, weather conditions, techniques and methods used in cultivation, rice grains purifying conditions, and storage conditions, also influence quality. Given the factors in the natural environment influencing quality, the focus of temperature and weather conditions have been predominantly studied by researchers in China from the China National Rice Research Institute. It has been demonstrated that the temperature during the grain-filling stage is crucial and affects the chalkiness quality of grains. Rice filled under high temperatures increases chalkiness, which is considered an undesirable feature due to the adverse effects on rice's appearance and milling quality. Different rice planting methods in different regions across China with variances in times of
dissemination To disseminate (from lat. ''disseminare'' "scattering seeds"), in the field of communication, is to broadcast a message to the public without direct feedback from the audience. Meaning Dissemination takes on the theory of the traditional view ...
, fertilisation, and water resources also affect rice quality. This is because the methods used have variances in temperature and light resources during the final stage of rice growth. Moreover, researchers in the China National Rice Research Institute conducted studies in rice fields have found that an increase in potassium fertiliser used to improve root growth, plant vigour, lodging prevention, and enhance crop resistance to pests could reduce the chalkiness and improves rice quality, but have adverse effects on human consumption.


Changes to planting areas

There have been dramatic increases and decreases in arable land and production across China. Increases were found in Northeast provinces such as
Jilin Jilin (; alternately romanized as Kirin or Chilin) is one of the three provinces of Northeast China. Its capital and largest city is Changchun. Jilin borders North Korea (Rasŏn, North Hamgyong, Ryanggang and Chagang) and Russia (Prim ...
and
Heilongjiang Heilongjiang () formerly romanized as Heilungkiang, is a province in northeast China. The standard one-character abbreviation for the province is (). It was formerly romanized as "Heilungkiang". It is the northernmost and easternmost province ...
, whilst increasingly urbanised provinces such as
Guangdong Guangdong (, ), alternatively romanized as Canton or Kwangtung, is a coastal province in South China on the north shore of the South China Sea. The capital of the province is Guangzhou. With a population of 126.01 million (as of 2020) ...
and
Fujian Fujian (; alternately romanized as Fukien or Hokkien) is a province on the southeastern coast of China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, Guangdong to the south, and the Taiwan Strait to the east. Its capi ...
saw decreases. This is due to more farmers and their families looking for a stable occupation in urban areas. As well as challenges to production due to climate change and lower grain production due to over-usage of fertilisers and pesticides. Consequently, prominent rice production areas have shifted to the northeast.


Exports

In 2019, China exported 4.56% of the world's rice with a value of US$1.13 billion. In 2020/2021, it is the sixth principal rice exporter in the world behind India, Vietnam, Thailand, Pakistan and the United States. In the period of November 2020 and November 2021, China's Rice exports accounted for up to $75 million and imports that accounted for up to $202 million. It was a year that particularly resulted in a negative trade balance of $127 million. In November 2021, the Rice were mainly exported to Turkey that accounted for $11.1 million, South Korean, accounting for $9.54 million, Vietnam, accounting for $7.49 million, Cameroon for $7.39 million, and Puerto Rico, making up of $7.1M. Imports were mainly from Thailand of $44.4 million, Vietnam for $40.9 million, Pakistan for $34 million, India for $31.5 million, and Myanmar for $30 million.


Challenges


Climate change

Rice is a prominent primary food staple for most of the world’s population, and it is not limited to just China, despite its prominence. Rice production in China has grown increasingly during the past few decades, that is mainly due to increased yields of grain than to the increased planting areas across China, and demand for rice is predicted to increase by approximately 20% by 2030. Even so, because of rice yield stagnation that agronomists and scientists have observed during recent years, there have been limits in the capability to increase rice yields with expectation that this is to continue into the near future. The challenge that has been causing this stagnation has been “attributed to reaching the biological yield ceiling for rice in which many studies have reported that climate change affects rice production”. Climate change and its significant impacts on rice production in China present challenges in meeting China’s future rice production requirements. Climate change and its impact on rice-wheat crop production and water resources are significant factors that rice production in China will have to address with the rise of climate change and resource scarcity. It is addressed by the agronomists and experts in the field of agriculture in China that as climate changes arise, the daily mean temperatures for rice of all kinds – including that of early rice (produced from March to July), late rice (produced during June to October), and single rice crops (produced during May to October) are impacted. Due to the challenge of climate change, it has been observed that the daily mean temperatures for rice production over recent years have increased in a range between 0.8 - 4.1°C. Given this challenge and the rise of climate change, this has altered the planting times of rice production in China. Regarding this challenge, it has been noted that early rice crops and single-crop rice-wheat crops should be planted at a much earlier period than usual, with late rice wheat-crops planting delayed. Given this response, the “predicted net effect would be to prolong the grain-filling period and optimise rice yield”. Climate change has brought about increased frequencies of natural disasters such as floods and droughts. For rice crops, this does not generate grain growth, leading to decreased yields.  In 2003, crops in the province of Hubei experienced a 0.5-million-hectare loss due to rice crops experiencing heat stress. Grains remain empty in temperatures over . During the same period, Hubei lost 0.27 million hectares to low rates of rice grain production.


Overuse of fertilisers

The overuse of fertilisers in agricultural rice production in China are commonly used among by risk-averse farmers and overuses amounts of fertilisers in order to avoid the impacts that are presented by the rise of climate change and risks that are present on wheat and rice production in China. Other factors that contributes to the farmers' overuse of fertilisers is similar to that of the overuse of pesticides where farmers have limited background knowledge behind the overuse of fertilisers, along with a lack of agricultural labour force and with the traditional prospects, experiences, and habits of the farmer themselves. China consumes 30% of the world's nitrogen fertilisers, 7% of this is employed for Chinese rice crops. Despite its excessive use, China's yield rates are comparably lower than other rice-growing nations who also utilise nitrogen fertilisers. Low amounts of fertiliser, around 20-30% is absorbed by a plant, whilst the remaining amount pollutes surrounding ecosystems leading to soil infertility. The challengers and consequences that are imposed by the overuse of fertilisers accounts for a decline in the fertility of arable land mass,
water pollution Water pollution (or aquatic pollution) is the contamination of water bodies, usually as a result of human activities, so that it negatively affects its uses. Water bodies include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers, reservoirs and groundwater. Water ...
, as well as the erosion of the sustainable development of rice production agriculture. The aforementioned consequences serves as a challenge for the overuse of fertilisers where the actions that farmers have taken in a result of an attempt to tackle the challenge of climate change risks raises concerns to both the overuse of fertilisers and overuse of pesticides which leads to adverse effects on rice-wheat yields and the environment. The overuse of fertilisers and pesticides interchangeably are what the researchers and scientists in the agriculture field of rice production in China have recognised as "inefficient and excessive".


Overuse of pesticides

Rice production in China is a renowned largest producer and consumer of rice compared to the rest of the world. Compared to other agricultural production in the field such as corn and wheat, rice production consumes the most use of pesticides application on its crops and plants. In rice production and the agricultural sector, pesticides are commonly used to “prevent, destroy, repel, or mitigate pests, weeds, insect infestation, and diseases”. Chinese rice farmers are known to spray their crops on a weekly basis to avoid damage by pests and diseases. The overuse of pesticides in rice production in China and driving factor for farmers to overuse pesticides in agricultural production is the “imperative to increase farmer’s income, promote agricultural transformation and agricultural sustainable development”. In occasions, the driving factor of the overuse of pesticides also comes from farmers that have a “lack of pest management knowledge, limited accessibility to high-quality governmental agricultural extensions system, misleading informations, and the absence of pest prediction and forecast”. Pesticides, in this context, plays a role of importance to enhance crop productivity, ensuring food stability, and to reduce a farmer’s loss of income due to pest diseases. Data analysts and researchers have statistically analysed that the “loss of pests and recovery of weed losses by pesticide application worldwide account for one third of the total grain output”. Given the continuous growth of the world population as well as the demand for food safety, the use of pesticides are a crucial element to order to ensure a vast food security stance. China is the largest developing country and is “now the largest manufacturer and consumer of pesticides in the world”, which is a reason why the challenge of the overuse of pesticides is expected in the agricultural field regions and rice production in China. The average amount of the chemical pesticides used “per unit area in China is 2.5 to 5 times higher than developed countries”. In much of the overuse of pesticides has provided benefits in terms of agricultural profitability, the overuse of pesticides can pose a number of risks and challenges in accounts of “human beings, animals, and the environment”. The risk and challenge of overuse of pesticides on the environment leads to the issue of sustainable land management that has arisen from the overuse of pesticides as the chemicals can “contaminate masses of soil, water,
turf Sod, also known as turf, is the upper layer of soil with the grass growing on it that is often harvested into rolls. In Australian and British English, sod is more commonly known as ''turf'', and the word "sod" is limited mainly to agricultu ...
, and other vegetation”. It has been identified by the agricultural researchers in China that each year, more than 10 million mu, that is, a measure used for land area in China, of crops are contaminated by the overuse of pesticides and residues. In addition, it is reinstated by these researchers that pesticides on rice and wheat crops are only in use of 30%, with the remainder 70% of pesticides used are dispersed into the mass environment. Given the overuse use of pesticides in rice production in China, this has posed challenges to agriculture and human consumption; with the rising living standards in China, the demand for rice has shifted towards quality over the quantity of rice. The challenge of the overuse of pesticides has contributed to the growing undesirable effects of pesticide use on the
ecology Ecology () is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans, and their physical environment. Ecology considers organisms at the individual, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere level. Ecology overlaps wi ...
, the environment, and human health. Moreover, the excessive and overuse of chemical pesticides that kills natural pest enemies and beneficial pests in rice-wheat crop production leads to the evolution of resistance to crop pests. In addition, the overuse of pesticides also contributes to the adverse effects that impairs human health, in which humans are exposed to the pesticides and pesticide residues present in foods that contain rice and rice-grain related crops. Increased pesticide use has been linked to the overuse of nitrogen fertilisers and pesticides, which promotes changes in biodiversity and therefore increased pest outbreaks. Crop losses for pesticide-treated crops were double that of non-pesticide-treated crops. Farmers have been reported to experience negative health effects on their nervous, digestive and
respiratory systems The respiratory system (also respiratory apparatus, ventilatory system) is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures used for gas exchange in animals and plants. The anatomy and physiology that make this happen varies grea ...
, leading to
chronic diseases A chronic condition is a health condition or disease that is persistent or otherwise long-lasting in its effects or a disease that comes with time. The term ''chronic'' is often applied when the course of the disease lasts for more than three mo ...
and deaths.


The future of Chinese rice production


Elite germaplasm, genetic diversity and the super rice breeding program

The creation of elite germaplasms such as the ''indica-japonica'' hybrid has encouraged for the research and development of new variants through studying elite genes and hybrid options. This, alongside the established super rice breeding program, researchers aim to produce high quality rice which is tolerant to drought and grain infertility.


Integrated rice cultivation systems

Further developments have been made with the assistance of agriculture systems and databases to manage fertilisation, irrigation, field management, disease and pest management, as well as predictions to estimate rice yields.


Lowering water-usage

Aerobic Aerobic means "requiring air," in which "air" usually means oxygen. Aerobic may also refer to * Aerobic exercise, prolonged exercise of moderate intensity * Aerobics, a form of aerobic exercise * Aerobic respiration, the aerobic process of cellu ...
rice utilises low rates of water due to its ability to grow in high altitudes. Studies are investigating its high tolerance to drought and low irrigation, in order to develop variants for rice fields in Northern and Central China with inadequate irrigation.


Consumption

Due to the abundance of rice grown within China, it is considered as a staple food for two-thirds of the nation. Over 149 million metric tons were consumed in 2020/2021, with an average of 76.8 kilograms milled per person annually.  However, there has been a pattern of a decline in rice consumption, from 78 kilograms per person annually in 1995 to 76.3 kilograms in 2009.   Produced rice grains can have numerous flavours, textures, and grains, each differentiating one from another with distinct qualities. Each rice grain's distinct qualities correspond to the grain's length, stickiness once cooked, the aroma, the texture, and the flavour. This difference comes from the different grain terrains or regions used for rice production in China. Processed rice grains are rich in nutrients, vitamins, and healthy minerals, which is known as "an excellent source of complex
carbohydrates In organic chemistry, a carbohydrate () is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water) and thus with the empirical formula (where ''m'' may or may ...
". It is prepared and consumed in a range of forms, these include:


Cooked rice

Milled rice cooked with water by boiling, steaming and braising. Rice can be flavoured by adding vegetables, meat, fish and
legumes A legume () is a plant in the family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae), or the fruit or seed of such a plant. When used as a dry grain, the seed is also called a pulse. Legumes are grown agriculturally, primarily for human consumption, for livestock fo ...
. Rice porridge is a popular dish for individuals with health issues and children, as it is easy to digest.
Cooked rice Cooked rice refers to rice that has been cooked either by steaming or boiling. The terms steamed rice or boiled rice are also commonly used. Any variant of Asian rice (both Indica and Japonica varieties), African rice or wild rice, glutinous ...
, now serving in a form that is common and popular Chinese food that is derived from cooked rice, is fried rice.
Fried rice Fried rice is a dish of cooked rice that has been stir-fried in a wok or a frying pan and is usually mixed with other ingredients such as eggs, vegetables, seafood, or meat. It is often eaten by itself or as an accompaniment to another dish. Fr ...
is the most common way of cooking the cereal crop, and it can be used to make both sweet and savoury dishes.


Noodles

Rice as wheat grains can be used and ground down to be turned to make rice flour which can then be used to make a variety of different dishes. Rice flour can be mixed with water into a dough-like paste that can be cut or hand-pulled into long strands to make another famous dish of
noodles Noodles are a type of food made from unleavened dough which is either rolled flat and cut, stretched, or extruded, into long strips or strings. Noodles are a staple food in many cultures (for example, Chinese noodles, Filipino noodles, Indo ...
. The noodle strands can be further processed in making further Chinese cuisine delicacies. The noodles, whether it is processed in the form of dried, fried, boiled or frozen, can be used to produce various types of noodles based on individual choices and preferences.


Glutinous Rice and milled rice delicacies

Once cooked, a popular and common form of rice can be made into glutinous rice, which can be made into either sweet desserts or savoury dishes.
Glutinous rice Glutinous rice (''Oryza sativa var. glutinosa''; also called sticky rice, sweet rice or waxy rice) is a type of rice grown mainly in Southeast and East Asia, and the northeastern regions of South Asia, which has opaque grains, very low amylose ...
is also known as sticky rice. It is sweet, has a waxy grain texture, and is an opaque grain with low amylose content, which creates a sticky texture when cooked. It is a type of rice that is mainly grown in the regions of Southeast and East Asia, and it is also included in both japonica and indica types of rice. This means that the glutinous rice grains can be short, medium, or long – essentially, it comes in all sizes. Glutinous rice can be consumed by fermenting it to make rice wine. Also, it can be made into
Jiuniang ) , alternate_name = , country = China , region = East Asia , creator = , course = , type = Rice pudding , served = , main_ingredient = Glutinous rice, fermentation starte ...
- fermented sweet rice serving as a critical ingredient and flavour for many the famous Chinese dishes as a supplement or as a sugar alternative.Milled rice can be ground and processed into rice noodles, dumplings such as Tangyuan,
Zongzi ''Zongzi'' (; ), ''rouzong'' () or simply ''zong'' (Cantonese Jyutping: ''zung2'') is a traditional Chinese rice dish made of glutinous rice stuffed with different fillings and wrapped in bamboo leaves (generally of the species ''Indocalamus t ...
and
Yuanxiao Yuanxiao (, Yuánxiāo ) is a dumpling of glutinous rice flour, filled with sesame or peanut powder, and sugar, or sweet adzuki bean paste, eaten in a soup, during the Lantern Festival, the fifteenth day of the Chinese New Year. It is similar to ...
, glutinous rice cakes such as
Niangao ''Nian gao'' (年糕; also ''niangao''; ''nin4 gou1'' in Cantonese), sometimes translated as year cake or New Year cake or Chinese New Year's cake, is a food prepared from glutinous rice flour and consumed in Chinese cuisine. It is also simply ...
, Maqiu, puddings, crackers, bread and fermented food. Ground rice can range in colour when made out of red, purple and brown types of rice.


Alcoholic beverages

Rice can be used as a base for alcoholic drinks such as
rice wine Rice wine is an alcoholic beverage fermented and distilled from rice, traditionally consumed in East Asia, Southeast Asia and South Asia. Rice wine is made by the fermentation of rice starch that has been converted to sugars. Microbes are the so ...
like Jiafan and Nuerhong, both made out of ''japonica'' glutinous rice. Sweet rice wines are usually homemade and are made out of ''japonica'' or ''indica'' glutinous rice. Rice alcohol, neither is it commonly used to make alcoholic beverages, but it is also used in the production process to make
vinegar Vinegar is an aqueous solution of acetic acid and trace compounds that may include flavorings. Vinegar typically contains 5–8% acetic acid by volume. Usually, the acetic acid is produced by a double fermentation, converting simple sugars to et ...
. Rice wine is predominantly in the Chinese cuisine, used for cooking, nor it can be consumed as an alcoholic beverage itself. In the context of cooking, rice wine is often incorporated directly into a dish or it serves as a marinade in order to enhance the flavour.


Rice bran

Rice bran Bran, also known as miller's bran, is the hard outer layers of cereal grain. It consists of the combined aleurone and pericarp. Corn (maize) bran also includes the pedicel (tip cap). Along with germ, it is an integral part of whole grains, a ...
is made out of the by-products of
rice mill A rice mill is a food-processing facility where paddy is processed to rice to be sold in the market. The entire product is procured from paddy fields, milled and processed hygienically in modern machinery and dust-free environment and cleaned t ...
ing, that is, the outer layer of the rice grain that is removed by polishing the rice in order for it to turn from brown rice to become white rice. It is a product of high nutrition, encapsulating a rich source of energy, protein, vitamins, mineral, high levels of oil, and fibre. Rice brans offers other beneficial alternatives, such as it is used for "treating diabetes, high blood pressure, high cholesterol,
alcoholism Alcoholism is, broadly, any drinking of alcohol (drug), alcohol that results in significant Mental health, mental or physical health problems. Because there is disagreement on the definition of the word ''alcoholism'', it is not a recognize ...
, obesity, and AIDS; for preventing stomach and colon cancer; for preventing heart and blood vessel (cardiovascular) disease; for strengthening the immune system; for increasing energy and improving athletic performance".


References

* {{- Agricultural production in China by commodity
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
Oryza sativa ''Oryza sativa'', commonly known as Asian rice or indica rice, is the plant species most commonly referred to in English as ''rice''. It is the type of farmed rice whose cultivars are most common globally, and was first domesticated in the Yan ...