Parinacota Volcano
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Parinacota (in Hispanicized spelling), Parina Quta or Parinaquta is a dormant
stratovolcano A stratovolcano, also known as a composite volcano, is a conical volcano built up by many layers (strata) of hardened lava and tephra. Unlike shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes are characterized by a steep profile with a summit crater and per ...
on the border of
Chile Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east a ...
and
Bolivia , image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg , flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center , flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...
. Together with
Pomerape Pomerape is a stratovolcano lying on the border of northern Chile and Bolivia (Oruro Department, Sajama Province, Curahuara de Carangas Municipality). It is part of the Payachata complex of volcanoes, together with Parinacota Volcano to the sou ...
it forms the
Nevados de Payachata Payachata or Paya Chata (Aymara ''pä, paya'' two, Pukina ''chata'' mountain, "two mountains") is a north–south trending complex of potentially active volcanos on the border of Bolivia and Chile, directly north of Chungará Lake. The complex c ...
volcanic chain. Part of the
Central Volcanic Zone The Andean Volcanic Belt is a major volcanic belt along the Andean cordillera in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. It is formed as a result of subduction of the Nazca Plate and Antarctic Plate underneath the South Americ ...
of the
Andes The Andes, Andes Mountains or Andean Mountains (; ) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range is long, wide (widest between 18°S – 20°S ...
, its summit reaches an elevation of above sea level. The symmetrical cone is capped by a
summit crater A volcanic crater is an approximately circular depression in the ground caused by volcanic activity. It is typically a bowl-shaped feature containing one or more vents. During volcanic eruptions, molten magma and volcanic gases rise from an unde ...
with widths of or . Farther down on the southern slopes lie three parasitic centres known as the Ajata cones. These cones have generated
lava flows Lava is molten or partially molten rock (magma) that has been expelled from the interior of a terrestrial planet (such as Earth) or a moon onto its surface. Lava may be erupted at a volcano or through a fracture in the crust, on land or un ...
. The volcano overlies a platform formed by
lava dome In volcanology, a lava dome is a circular mound-shaped protrusion resulting from the slow extrusion of viscous lava from a volcano. Dome-building eruptions are common, particularly in convergent plate boundary settings. Around 6% of eruptions on ...
s and
andesitic Andesite () is a volcanic rock of intermediate composition. In a general sense, it is the intermediate type between silica-poor basalt and silica-rich rhyolite. It is fine-grained (aphanitic) to porphyritic in texture, and is composed predomina ...
lava flows. The volcano started growing during the
Pleistocene The Pleistocene ( , often referred to as the ''Ice age'') is the geological Epoch (geology), epoch that lasted from about 2,580,000 to 11,700 years ago, spanning the Earth's most recent period of repeated glaciations. Before a change was fina ...
and formed a large cone. At some point between the Pleistocene and the
Holocene The Holocene ( ) is the current geological epoch. It began approximately 11,650 cal years Before Present (), after the Last Glacial Period, which concluded with the Holocene glacial retreat. The Holocene and the preceding Pleistocene togethe ...
, the western flank of the volcano collapsed, generating a giant
landslide Landslides, also known as landslips, are several forms of mass wasting that may include a wide range of ground movements, such as rockfalls, deep-seated grade (slope), slope failures, mudflows, and debris flows. Landslides occur in a variety of ...
that spread west and formed a large, hummocky landslide deposit. The avalanche crossed and dammed a previously existing drainage, impounding or enlarging Lake Chungará; numerous other lakes now forming the headwaters of the Rio Lauca sprang up within the deposit. Volcanic activity rebuilt the cone after the collapse, cancelling out the collapse scar. Parinacota had numerous effusive and
explosive eruption In volcanology, an explosive eruption is a volcanic eruption of the most violent type. A notable example is the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. Such eruptions result when sufficient gas has dissolved under pressure within a viscous magma such ...
s during the Holocene, the latest about 200 years ago. While there are no recorded eruptions, legends of the local
Aymara people Aymara may refer to: Languages and people * Aymaran languages, the second most widespread Andean language ** Aymara language, the main language within that family ** Central Aymara, the other surviving branch of the Aymara(n) family, which today ...
imply that they may have witnessed one eruption. Renewed activity at Parinacota is possible in the future, although the relatively low population density in the region would limit the amount of damage that could occur. Some towns and a regional highway between Bolivia and Chile are potentially exposed to the effects of a new eruption.


Name

The name "Parinacota" is
Aymara Aymara may refer to: Languages and people * Aymaran languages, the second most widespread Andean language ** Aymara language, the main language within that family ** Central Aymara, the other surviving branch of the Aymara(n) family, which today ...
. ''Parina'' means flamingo and ''quta'' lake. Parinacota and its neighbour Pomerape are also known as the
Nevados de Payachata Payachata or Paya Chata (Aymara ''pä, paya'' two, Pukina ''chata'' mountain, "two mountains") is a north–south trending complex of potentially active volcanos on the border of Bolivia and Chile, directly north of Chungará Lake. The complex c ...
, "twins". This refers to the fact that the volcanoes resemble each other.


Geomorphology and geology

Parinacota lies on the western margin of the
Altiplano The Altiplano (Spanish for "high plain"), Collao (Quechua and Aymara: Qullaw, meaning "place of the Qulla") or Andean Plateau, in west-central South America, is the most extensive high plateau on Earth outside Tibet. The plateau is located at the ...
in the Central Andes. The border between
Bolivia , image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg , flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center , flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...
and
Chile Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east a ...
bisects the volcano and runs along the rim of the crater, which lies in Bolivia. In Chile, where most of the edifice is located, Parinacota lies in the
commune A commune is an alternative term for an intentional community. Commune or comună or comune or other derivations may also refer to: Administrative-territorial entities * Commune (administrative division), a municipality or township ** Communes of ...
of
Putre Putre is a Chilean town and commune, capital of the Parinacota Province in the Arica-Parinacota Region. It is located east of Arica, at an altitude of . The town is backdropped by Taapaca volcanic complex. Putre is on the edge of the Lauca Nati ...
,
Arica y Parinacota Region The Arica y Parinacota Region ( es, link=no, Región de Arica y Parinacota ) is one of Chile's 16 first order administrative divisions. It comprises two provinces, Arica and Parinacota. It borders Peru's Department of Tacna to the north, Boliv ...
, and in Bolivia in the
Oruro Department Oruro (; Quechua: ''Uru Uru''; Aymara: ''Ururu'') is a department of Bolivia, with an area of . Its capital is the city of Oruro. According to the 2012 census, the Oruro department had a population of 494,178. Provinces of Oruro The departme ...
of the
Sajama Province Sajama is a province in the northwestern parts of the Bolivian Oruro Department. Location ''Sajama'' province is one of the sixteen provinces in the Oruro Department. It is located between 17° 39' and 18° 39' South and between 67° 38' and 68° ...
. The towns of Ajata and Parinacota lie southwest and west of the volcano, respectively. The region lies at high altitude and access is difficult, hampering research on the volcanoes of the Central Andes.


Regional

The
Nazca Plate The Nazca Plate or Nasca Plate, named after the Nazca region of southern Peru, is an oceanic tectonic plate in the eastern Pacific Ocean basin off the west coast of South America. The ongoing subduction, along the Peru–Chile Trench, of the Na ...
and
Antarctic Plate The Antarctic Plate is a tectonic plate containing the continent of Antarctica, the Kerguelen Plateau, and some remote islands in the Southern Ocean and other surrounding oceans. After breakup from Gondwana (the southern part of the superconti ...
subduct Subduction is a geological process in which the oceanic lithosphere is recycled into the Earth's mantle at convergent boundaries. Where the oceanic lithosphere of a tectonic plate converges with the less dense lithosphere of a second plate, the ...
beneath the
South America Plate The South American Plate is a major tectonic plate which includes the continent of South America as well as a sizable region of the Atlantic Ocean seabed extending eastward to the African Plate, with which it forms the southern part of the Mid-A ...
in the Peru-Chile Trench at a pace of and , respectively, resulting in volcanic activity in the
Andes The Andes, Andes Mountains or Andean Mountains (; ) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range is long, wide (widest between 18°S – 20°S ...
. Present-day volcanism occurs within four discrete belts: The
Northern Volcanic Zone The Andean Volcanic Belt is a major volcanic belt along the Andean cordillera in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. It is formed as a result of subduction of the Nazca Plate and Antarctic Plate underneath the South Ame ...
(NVZ), the
Central Volcanic Zone The Andean Volcanic Belt is a major volcanic belt along the Andean cordillera in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. It is formed as a result of subduction of the Nazca Plate and Antarctic Plate underneath the South Americ ...
(CVZ), the
Southern Volcanic Zone The Andean Volcanic Belt is a major volcanic belt along the Andean cordillera in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. It is formed as a result of subduction of the Nazca Plate and Antarctic Plate underneath the South American ...
(SVZ) and the
Austral Volcanic Zone The Andean Volcanic Belt is a major volcanic belt along the Andes, Andean cordillera in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. It is formed as a result of subduction of the Nazca Plate and Antarctic Plate underneath the South Am ...
(AVZ). These extend between 2°N-5°S, 16°S-28°S, 33°S-46°S and 49°S-55°S, respectively. Between them they contain about 60 active volcanoes and 118 volcanoes which appear to have been active during the
Holocene The Holocene ( ) is the current geological epoch. It began approximately 11,650 cal years Before Present (), after the Last Glacial Period, which concluded with the Holocene glacial retreat. The Holocene and the preceding Pleistocene togethe ...
, not including potentially active very large silicic volcanic systems or very small monogenetic ones. These belts of active volcanism occur where the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South America Plate at a steep angle, while in the volcanically inactive gaps between them the subduction is much shallower; thus there is no
asthenosphere The asthenosphere () is the mechanically weak and ductile region of the upper mantle of Earth. It lies below the lithosphere, at a depth between ~ below the surface, and extends as deep as . However, the lower boundary of the asthenosphere is not ...
between the
slab Slab or SLAB may refer to: Physical materials * Concrete slab, a flat concrete plate used in construction * Stone slab, a flat stone used in construction * Slab (casting), a length of metal * Slab (geology), that portion of a tectonic plate that i ...
of the subducting plate and the overriding plate in the gaps. Parinacota is part of the CVZ, which contains about 44 active volcanoes. Most volcanoes of the CVZ are relatively poorly researched and many exceed of elevation. Some of these edifices were active during historical time; these include
El Misti Misti, also known as Putina or Guagua Putina, is a stratovolcano of andesite, dacite, and rhyolite located in southern Peru near the city of Arequipa. With its seasonally snow-capped, symmetrical cone, Misti stands at above sea level and lies betw ...
,
Lascar A lascar was a sailor or militiaman from the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, the Arab world, British Somaliland, or other land east of the Cape of Good Hope, who was employed on European ships from the 16th century until the middle of the 2 ...
, San Pedro and
Ubinas Ubinas is an active stratovolcano in the Moquegua Region of southern Peru, approximately east of the city of Arequipa. Part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, it rises above sea level. The volcano's summit is cut by a and caldera, wh ...
; the largest historical eruption of the CVZ occurred in 1600 at
Huaynaputina Huaynaputina ( ; ) is a volcano in a volcanic high plateau in southern Peru. Lying in the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, it was formed by the subduction of the oceanic Nazca Plate under the continental South American Plate. Huaynaputina ...
. Other volcanoes in the CVZ that have been the subject of research are Galan and Purico complex. The CVZ has a characteristically thick crust () and the volcanic rocks have peculiar
oxygen Oxygen is the chemical element with the symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group in the periodic table, a highly reactive nonmetal, and an oxidizing agent that readily forms oxides with most elements as wel ...
and
strontium Strontium is the chemical element with the symbol Sr and atomic number 38. An alkaline earth metal, strontium is a soft silver-white yellowish metallic element that is highly chemically reactive. The metal forms a dark oxide layer when it is ex ...
isotope ratio The term stable isotope has a meaning similar to stable nuclide, but is preferably used when speaking of nuclides of a specific element. Hence, the plural form stable isotopes usually refers to isotopes of the same element. The relative abundanc ...
s in comparison to the SVZ and NVZ. Parinacota lies in a segment of the CVZ where the Peru-Chile Trench undergoes a 45° curvature, and where the direction of subduction changes from diagonal to perpendicular. The crust is especially thick there, the reasons for this are not agreed upon yet and may vary between the western and eastern sides of the CVZ. Subduction-related volcanism in the region has been ongoing since 200 million years ago, burying most of the
Precambrian The Precambrian (or Pre-Cambrian, sometimes abbreviated pꞒ, or Cryptozoic) is the earliest part of Earth's history, set before the current Phanerozoic Eon. The Precambrian is so named because it preceded the Cambrian, the first period of the ...
basement. Various units of sedimentary and volcanic origin form most of the outcropping basement in the region. A dramatic increment of volcanic activity occurred approximately 27 million years ago, when the
Farallon Plate The Farallon Plate was an ancient oceanic plate. It formed one of the three main plates of Panthalassa, alongside the Phoenix Plate and Izanagi Plate, which were connected by a triple junction. The Farallon Plate began subducting under the west c ...
broke apart and subduction increased substantially. On the Bolivian side the oldest volcanites are the
Oligocene The Oligocene ( ) is a geologic epoch of the Paleogene Period and extends from about 33.9 million to 23 million years before the present ( to ). As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the epoch are well identified but the ...
Kollukollu
formation Formation may refer to: Linguistics * Back-formation, the process of creating a new lexeme by removing or affixes * Word formation, the creation of a new word by adding affixes Mathematics and science * Cave formation or speleothem, a secondar ...
34 million years ago and the 23 million years old Rondal Lavas.
Miocene The Miocene ( ) is the first geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about (Ma). The Miocene was named by Scottish geologist Charles Lyell; the name comes from the Greek words (', "less") and (', "new") and means "less recen ...
volcanic activity generated the Berenguela, Carangas and Mauri formations, followed by the Perez formation during the
Pliocene The Pliocene ( ; also Pleiocene) is the epoch in the geologic time scale that extends from 5.333 million to 2.58Pleistocene The Pleistocene ( , often referred to as the ''Ice age'') is the geological Epoch (geology), epoch that lasted from about 2,580,000 to 11,700 years ago, spanning the Earth's most recent period of repeated glaciations. Before a change was fina ...
. These formations were all affected by terrain uplift and folding, probably linked to changes in the subduction regime. Volcanism continued into the late Pleistocene and Holocene, and was accompanied by glacial activity during the Pleistocene. During this whole time period, volcanic activity progressively migrated westward; presently, it is located on the Bolivia-Chile border.


Local

Parinacota is a highly symmetric volcanic cone, having the classical "regular cone" shape of a
stratovolcano A stratovolcano, also known as a composite volcano, is a conical volcano built up by many layers (strata) of hardened lava and tephra. Unlike shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes are characterized by a steep profile with a summit crater and per ...
. The volcano is high and features both blocky
lava flow Lava is molten or partially molten rock (magma) that has been expelled from the interior of a terrestrial planet (such as Earth) or a moon onto its surface. Lava may be erupted at a volcano or through a fracture in the crust, on land or und ...
s and
scoria Scoria is a pyroclastic, highly vesicular, dark-colored volcanic rock that was ejected from a volcano as a molten blob and cooled in the air to form discrete grains or clasts.Neuendorf, K.K.E., J.P. Mehl, Jr., and J.A. Jackson, eds. (2005) ''G ...
flows. Lava flows are fresh with levees, lobes and flow ridges, and reach lengths of on the slopes of the cone. The lava flows are between thick and can spread to widths of at the foot of the volcano.
Pyroclastic flow A pyroclastic flow (also known as a pyroclastic density current or a pyroclastic cloud) is a fast-moving current of hot gas and volcanic matter (collectively known as tephra) that flows along the ground away from a volcano at average speeds of bu ...
s are also found, reaching lengths of and are usually poorly consolidated, containing breadcrust bombs and
breccia Breccia () is a rock composed of large angular broken fragments of minerals or rocks cemented together by a fine-grained matrix. The word has its origins in the Italian language, in which it means "rubble". A breccia may have a variety of di ...
. The volcano is capped by a wide and deep
summit crater A volcanic crater is an approximately circular depression in the ground caused by volcanic activity. It is typically a bowl-shaped feature containing one or more vents. During volcanic eruptions, molten magma and volcanic gases rise from an unde ...
, which has a pristine appearance. Other data imply a width of and a depth of . The crater is the source of pumice flows, which have well conserved surface features such as levees and lobes especially down on the eastern slope. These pumice flows extend as far as away from the crater. An ashfall deposit spreads east from Parinacota to a distance of in Bolivia. Ash and
lapilli Lapilli is a size classification of tephra, which is material that falls out of the air during a volcanic eruption or during some meteorite impacts. ''Lapilli'' (singular: ''lapillus'') is Latin for "little stones". By definition lapilli range f ...
deposits have been found at the shores of Lake Chungará as well. The cone sits atop a thick multilobed
andesitic Andesite () is a volcanic rock of intermediate composition. In a general sense, it is the intermediate type between silica-poor basalt and silica-rich rhyolite. It is fine-grained (aphanitic) to porphyritic in texture, and is composed predomina ...
platform known as the "Chungará Andesites" which crop out on the north shore of Lake Chungará in the form of a shelf. Overlying this shelf is a system of
lava dome In volcanology, a lava dome is a circular mound-shaped protrusion resulting from the slow extrusion of viscous lava from a volcano. Dome-building eruptions are common, particularly in convergent plate boundary settings. Around 6% of eruptions on ...
s, which reach thicknesses of . The lava domes are accompanied by
block and ash flow A block and ash flow or block-and-ash flow is a flowing mixture of volcanic ash and large (>26 cm) angular blocks commonly formed as a result of a gravitational collapse of a lava dome or lava flow. Block and ash flows are a type of pyroclastic ...
deposits that reach lengths of . A steep descent leads to Lake Chungará. File:Parinacota volcano 1995.jpg, The white lava domes and a black lava flow are visible above the lake File:Volcan parinacota 1.JPG, The domes at the foot of Parinacota are well visible. In the middle right of the image, one of the Ajata lava flows is recognizable File:Sopka Cerro Parinacota 6342 m.n.m. - panoramio.jpg, The grey lava domes and a black Ajata lava flow are clearly visible File:Lago Chungará - Parque Nacional Lauca - Región de Arica y Parinacota.JPG, A black lava flow almost reaches the lake South of the main edifice lie the
parasitic vents A parasitic cone (also adventive cone or satellite cone) is the cone-shaped accumulation of volcanic material not part of the central vent of a volcano. It forms from eruptions from fractures on the flank of the volcano. These fractures occur ...
known as the Ajata cones, which formed along a fissure that emanates from the main cone and is aligned with the regional Condoriri-Parinacota
lineament ''See also Line (geometry)'' A lineament is a linear feature in a landscape which is an expression of an underlying geological structure such as a fault. Typically a lineament will appear as a fault-aligned valley, a series of fault or fold-aligne ...
. The dimensions of the cones reach width and height. The High Ajata flow emanates from a single cone and spreads southwest as a lobated lava flow. The middle Ajata flow is much smaller and is sourced to three different cones below the source of the High Ajata, each cone having its own small flow field. The upper and lower Ajata flows are only slightly smaller than the High Ajata flow and form superposed lava flows lower on the edifice. These lava flows are gray-black
aa lava Lava is molten or partially molten rock (magma) that has been expelled from the interior of a terrestrial planet (such as Earth) or a moon onto its surface. Lava may be erupted at a volcano or through a fracture in the crust, on land or und ...
flows, commonly up to thick; the longest of these flows reaches a length of . Older are the large
dacitic Dacite () is a volcanic rock formed by rapid solidification of lava that is high in silica and low in alkali metal oxides. It has a fine-grained (aphanitic) to porphyritic texture and is intermediate in composition between andesite and rhyolite ...
lava flows known as the "Border Dacites" on the southeastern side of Parinacota, which are over horizontal distance. A similar but smaller lava flow lies west of the Border Dacites, entirely within Chile. These three lava flows have a total volume of about . Overall, Parinacota rises from a surface of ; the resulting edifice has a volume of . On the northern side Parinacota partly overlaps with Pomerape. Parinacota, Pomerape, and volcanoes farther south like Quisiquisini,
Guallatiri Guallatiri is a high volcano in Chile. It is located southwest of the Nevados de Quimsachata volcanic group and is sometimes considered to be part of that group. It is a stratovolcano with numerous fumaroles around the summit. The summit may b ...
and Poquentica form the eastern margin of the Lauca basin. This is a relatively gentle plain drained by the Rio Lauca. A chain of dormant or extinct volcanoes farther west like
Taapaca Taapaca is a Holocene volcanic complex in northern Chile's Arica y Parinacota Region. Located in the Chilean Andes, it is part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andean Volcanic Belt, one of four distinct volcanic chains in South America. The ...
forms the western margin of the basin and separates the Altiplano from the steep dropoff to the
Atacama The Atacama Desert ( es, Desierto de Atacama) is a desert plateau in South America covering a 1,600 km (990 mi) strip of land on the Pacific coast, west of the Andes Mountains. The Atacama Desert is the driest nonpolar desert in the w ...
west of the Lauca basin.


Glaciers

The old cone was subject to
glaciation A glacial period (alternatively glacial or glaciation) is an interval of time (thousands of years) within an ice age that is marked by colder temperatures and glacier advances. Interglacials, on the other hand, are periods of warmer climate betw ...
, and traces of glacial erosion are preserved on its lava flows. A system of
moraine A moraine is any accumulation of unconsolidated debris (regolith and rock), sometimes referred to as glacial till, that occurs in both currently and formerly glaciated regions, and that has been previously carried along by a glacier or ice shee ...
s can be seen at an elevation of on the southeastern foot of the volcano, where they partly cross the shores of Lake Chungará. Six such high moraines have been identified there, they were formed during the regional
last glacial maximum The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), also referred to as the Late Glacial Maximum, was the most recent time during the Last Glacial Period that ice sheets were at their greatest extent. Ice sheets covered much of Northern North America, Northern Eur ...
(which did not coincide with the global last glacial maximum) although a pre-last glacial maximum origin has been proposed. Other, unspecified glacial deposits have also been observed in this area. Presently, a or large
ice cap In glaciology, an ice cap is a mass of ice that covers less than of land area (usually covering a highland area). Larger ice masses covering more than are termed ice sheets. Description Ice caps are not constrained by topographical features ...
covers the upper parts of the volcano and drops down to an elevation of about . There is also a large
glacier A glacier (; ) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its Ablation#Glaciology, ablation over many years, often Century, centuries. It acquires dis ...
on its southern flank. Some reports disagree with calling any part of Parinacota's ice cap a "glacier", however. Between 1987 and 2016, ice area at Parinacota and Pomerape declined by 1.94% every year. A retreat of was noted between 2002 and 2003, and most of the ice lies on the western slope of the mountain.


Sector collapse

Parinacota shows evidence of a major
sector collapse A sector collapse is the collapse of a portion of a volcano due to a phreatic eruption, an earthquake, or the intervention of new magma. Occurring on many volcanoes, sector collapses are generally one of the most hazardous volcanic events, and will ...
(a giant
landslide Landslides, also known as landslips, are several forms of mass wasting that may include a wide range of ground movements, such as rockfalls, deep-seated grade (slope), slope failures, mudflows, and debris flows. Landslides occur in a variety of ...
), whose deposit was originally interpreted to be a lava flow. The collapse removed a volume of about from the cone, plunged over vertical distance and flowed west, covering a surface area of or with debris; the volume is not very well established. As the volcano grew, it put more and more load on relatively weak sedimentary material that the volcano had developed on, deforming it, until these sedimentary rocks gave way. The western slope might have been weakened by glacial action, further facilitating the onset of the collapse. The collapse was probably sequential from the lower part of the edifice to the summit, and it formed an
avalanche An avalanche is a rapid flow of snow down a slope, such as a hill or mountain. Avalanches can be set off spontaneously, by such factors as increased precipitation or snowpack weakening, or by external means such as humans, animals, and earth ...
of rocks that flowed down the volcano. This flow was probably laminar and extremely fast ( ), judging from the morphologies of the avalanche deposit, and it incorporated substantial pre-collapse sediments from the Lauca basin. As the avalanche descended the slopes of the volcano, it picked up enough speed to run up on some topographical obstacles. Such collapses have occurred on other volcanoes in the CVZ such as
Llullaillaco Llullaillaco () is a dormant stratovolcano at the border of Argentina (Salta Province) and Chile (Antofagasta Region). It lies in the Puna de Atacama, a region of tall volcanic peaks on a high plateau close to the Atacama Desert, one of the dri ...
,
Ollagüe Ollagüe () or Ullawi () is a massive andesite stratovolcano in the Andes on the border between Bolivia and Chile, within the Antofagasta Region of Chile and the Potosi Department of Bolivia. Part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, i ...
,
Socompa Socompa is a large stratovolcano at the border of Argentina and Chile with an elevation of metres. Part of the Chilean and Argentine Andean Volcanic Belt (AVB), it is part of the Central Volcanic Zone, one of the various segments of the AVB. Th ...
and
Tata Sabaya Tata Sabaya is a high volcano in Bolivia. It is part of the Central Volcanic Zone, one of several volcanic belts in the Andes which are separated by gaps without volcanic activity. This section of the Andes was volcanically active since the Ju ...
; the most recent event occurred between 1787 and 1802 at
Tutupaca Tutupaca is a volcano in the region of Tacna in Peru. It is part of the Peruvian segment of the Central Volcanic Zone, one of several volcanic belts in the Andes. Tutupaca consists of three overlapping volcanoes formed by lava flows and lava ...
in
Peru , image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg , image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg , other_symbol = Great Seal of the State , other_symbol_type = Seal (emblem), National seal , national_motto = "Fi ...
and was much smaller than the Parinacota sector collapse. The collapse event resembled the one that occurred on
Mount St. Helens Mount St. Helens (known as Lawetlat'la to the indigenous Cowlitz people, and Loowit or Louwala-Clough to the Klickitat) is an active stratovolcano located in Skamania County, Washington, in the Pacific Northwest region of the United St ...
during the latter's eruption in 1980, although the Parinacota collapse was three times larger. A separate, minor sector collapse occurred on a lava dome on the southwestern foot of the volcano at an unknown time. Such sector collapses are a common phenomenon on volcanoes. The avalanche eventually came to rest in a large "L" with the long side extending along the axis of the collapse and the short side closer to the edifice pointing north where its advance was limited by tomography, formed an exceptionally well preserved debris avalanche deposit. This deposit has a "hummocky" appearance typical for sector collapse deposits; individual hummocks can reach sizes of and heights of , with the size decreasing away from the volcano. The formation of these hummocks was probably influenced by the pre-existing structure of the edifice; much of the original stratigraphy of the pre-collapse edifice was preserved within the final collapse deposit. As the avalanche came to rest, compressional ridges formed with axes perpendicular to the movement of the avalanche. A few large
Toreva block A Toreva block landslide is a distinctive landslide type which may occur when a stronger material such as sandstone or limestone overlies a weaker material such as shale and an eroding agent undercuts the weaker lower layer. The type was first r ...
s lie in the avalanche deposit just at the foot of Parinacota, they reach heights of and volumes of . Large blocks with sizes of up to are part of the deposit, and some of these blocks preserve details of the pre-collapse structure; the blocks reach sizes of even at large distances from Parinacota. These large blocks dominate the avalanche deposit; fine material is not present in the Parinacota collapse deposit, an unusual feature among debris avalanches. Some blocks slid away from the main avalanche deposit. The avalanche deposit displays a noticeable split into two units; the upper one is andesitic and originated from the actual cone, the lower one is derived from the lava domes beneath the present-day edifice. This collapse gave birth to Lake Chungará when the avalanche flowed across a westbound drainage between
Choquelimpie Choquelimpie is a high volcano in Chile. It is constructed from several separate layers of andesite and dacite on top of Tertiary and Precambrian layers. The volcano was active over six million years ago, with the neighbouring volcano Ajoya active ...
and Parinacota, forming a high
volcanic dam A volcanic dam is a type of natural dam produced directly or indirectly by volcanism, which holds or temporarily restricts the flow of surface water in existing streams, like a man-made dam. There are two main types of volcanic dams, those create ...
that retained about of water. The formation of lakes during sector collapses has been observed at other volcanoes, including the 1988 Mount St. Helens collapse. Prior to the collapse,
alluvial Alluvium (from Latin ''alluvius'', from ''alluere'' 'to wash against') is loose clay, silt, sand, or gravel that has been deposited by running water in a stream bed, on a floodplain, in an alluvial fan or beach, or in similar settings. Alluv ...
and riverine deposits occupied the area. In 2015 it was proposed that a much smaller lake occupied part of the Lake Chungará basin before the collapse. Within the hummock-like topography of the deposit, a number of other lakes and
peat Peat (), also known as turf (), is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter. It is unique to natural areas called peatlands, bogs, mires, moors, or muskegs. The peatland ecosystem covers and is the most efficien ...
filled basins are found, formed by water percolating through the avalanche deposit. These lakes are known as the Lagunas Cotacotani lakes, and are an important bird refuge. At least some of these lakes may be
kettle hole A kettle (also known as a kettle lake, kettle hole, or pothole) is a depression/hole in an outwash plain formed by retreating glaciers or draining floodwaters. The kettles are formed as a result of blocks of dead ice left behind by retreating gla ...
s, formed when blocks of ice transported within the avalanche melted. With increasing distance from the main cone the size of the lakes decreases. Some of these lakes are connected with each other and others are isolated, and during periods of low lake stands some of the lakes can become disconnected from each other. Springs at the foot of Parinacota form the Rio Benedicto Morales which flows through some of the lakes and ends in the main Lake Cotacotani. Otherwise, these lakes receive water from Lake Chungará through seepage. The lakes ultimately form the headwaters of the Rio Lauca, whose course previously extended across the area covered by the avalanche. The river has not carved an outlet all the way to Lake Chungará, probably because the relatively coarse avalanche deposit allows large amounts of water to seep through without carving a new river channel. The rate at which waters seep through the avalanche deposit has been estimated at ; it has progressively decreased over time, probably as a consequence of increased siltation within the avalanche deposit. Thus the depth and surface area of Lake Chungará have increased since the formation of the lake, and so has evaporation, which currently removes almost 5/6 of the total inflow. A pumice fall deposit of
dacitic Dacite () is a volcanic rock formed by rapid solidification of lava that is high in silica and low in alkali metal oxides. It has a fine-grained (aphanitic) to porphyritic texture and is intermediate in composition between andesite and rhyolite ...
composition is associated with the sector collapse event, which together with
lava bomb A volcanic bomb or lava bomb is a mass of partially molten rock (tephra) larger than 64 mm (2.5 inches) in diameter, formed when a volcano ejects viscous fragments of lava during an eruption. Because volcanic bombs cool after they l ...
s suggest that an eruption took place at the time of the collapse; this has been contested however. The sector collapse was probably not caused by an eruption, although the intrusion of a
cryptodome In volcanology, a lava dome is a circular mound-shaped protrusion resulting from the slow extrusion of viscous lava from a volcano. Dome-building eruptions are common, particularly in convergent plate boundary settings. Around 6% of eruptions o ...
may have helped. There is no evidence on the edifice for the existence of a collapse scar, indicating that post-collapse volcanic activity has completely filled up the space removed by the collapse. The volcanic edifice has reached a volume similar to its volume before the failure.


Surroundings

The terrain around Parinacota is mostly formed by
Neogene The Neogene ( ), informally Upper Tertiary or Late Tertiary, is a geologic period and system that spans 20.45 million years from the end of the Paleogene Period million years ago ( Mya) to the beginning of the present Quaternary Period Mya. ...
volcanic rocks. These are for the most part over one million years old and include individual volcanic centres such as Caldera Ajoya,
Caldera Lauca The Caldera Lauca is a caldera in the Arica y Parinacota Region of Chile. It is located in the Cordillera Occidental, in the valley of the Lauca River. The elliptic caldera has an east-west extension of and in north-south direction, buried bene ...
, Choquelimpie, Condoriri,
Guane Guane Guane is a municipality and town in the Pinar del Río Province of Cuba. It was founded in 1602. Geography The municipality is divided into the barrios of Cabo de San Antonio y La Fe, Catalina, Cortés, Hato de Guane, Isabel Rubio (Paso Real ...
, Larancagua and Quisiquisini, and the Miocene Lauca
ignimbrite Ignimbrite is a type of volcanic rock, consisting of hardened tuff. Ignimbrites form from the deposits of pyroclastic flows, which are a hot suspension of particles and gases flowing rapidly from a volcano, driven by being denser than the surrou ...
(2.7 ± 0.1 million years ago) that forms the
basement A basement or cellar is one or more floors of a building that are completely or partly below the ground floor. It generally is used as a utility space for a building, where such items as the furnace, water heater, breaker panel or fuse box, ...
. The activity of many of these centres occurred over 6.6 million years ago. At slightly larger distances lie the volcanoes Guallatiri,
Nevados de Quimsachata Kimsa Chata or Kimsachata (Aymara and Quechua ''kimsa'' three, Pukina ''chata'' mountain,Teofilo Laime Ajacopa, Lengua Pukina en Jesús de Machaca, referring to Alfredo Torero ("Reflexión acerca del pukina escrito por Alfredo Torero ... Pukina ...
and Taapaca.
Proterozoic The Proterozoic () is a geological eon spanning the time interval from 2500 to 538.8million years ago. It is the most recent part of the Precambrian "supereon". It is also the longest eon of the Earth's geologic time scale, and it is subdivided ...
and
paleozoic The Paleozoic (or Palaeozoic) Era is the earliest of three geologic eras of the Phanerozoic Eon. The name ''Paleozoic'' ( ;) was coined by the British geologist Adam Sedgwick in 1838 by combining the Greek words ''palaiós'' (, "old") and ' ...
basement rocks crop out as
charnockite Charnockite () is any orthopyroxene-bearing quartz-feldspar rock formed at high temperature and pressure, commonly found in granulite facies metamorphic regions, ''sensu stricto'' as an endmember of the charnockite series. Charnockite series Th ...
/
granulite Granulites are a class of high-grade metamorphic rocks of the granulite facies that have experienced high-temperature and moderate-pressure metamorphism. They are medium to coarse–grained and mainly composed of feldspars sometimes associated w ...
east and as
amphibolite Amphibolite () is a metamorphic rock that contains amphibole, especially hornblende and actinolite, as well as plagioclase feldspar, but with little or no quartz. It is typically dark-colored and dense, with a weakly foliated or schistose (flaky ...
/
gneiss Gneiss ( ) is a common and widely distributed type of metamorphic rock. It is formed by high-temperature and high-pressure metamorphic processes acting on formations composed of igneous or sedimentary rocks. Gneiss forms at higher temperatures an ...
west of the volcano, respectively. Other formations include the volcaniclastic Lupica formation of Oligocene-Miocene age and the lacustrine Lauca formation. A number of volcanoes have been active around Parinacota in the last one million years.
Pomerape Pomerape is a stratovolcano lying on the border of northern Chile and Bolivia (Oruro Department, Sajama Province, Curahuara de Carangas Municipality). It is part of the Payachata complex of volcanoes, together with Parinacota Volcano to the sou ...
northeast of Parinacota is similar to Parinacota but the greater degrees of erosional decay suggest it is older than Parinacota; a subsidiary vent dated 205,000 years ago is found on its eastern slope. Pomerape is a comparatively simple volcanic cone whose foot is covered by glacial debris. One age obtained on the cone is 106,000 ± 7,000 years ago. The Caquena and Chucullo
rhyolitic Rhyolite ( ) is the most silica-rich of volcanic rocks. It is generally glassy or fine-grained (aphanitic) in texture, but may be porphyritic, containing larger mineral crystals (phenocrysts) in an otherwise fine-grained groundmass. The mineral ...
to andesitic lava domes are found northwest and southwest of Parinacota, respectively; they are associated with the oldest stages of activity at Parinacota.


Periglacial and erosional landforms

Periglacial Periglaciation (adjective: "periglacial", also referring to places at the edges of glacial areas) describes geomorphic processes that result from seasonal thawing of snow in areas of permafrost, the runoff from which refreezes in ice wedges and ot ...
landscapes are frequent in the area; they include rounded landforms, smooth surfaces,
solifluction Solifluction is a collective name for gradual processes in which a mass moves down a slope ("mass wasting") related to freeze-thaw activity. This is the standard modern meaning of solifluction, which differs from the original meaning given to it ...
terrain and striated terrain. This extensiveness is the result of the relatively dry climate in the region, which limits the development of glaciers. On Parinacota, landforms of this type are found starting from elevation and become dominant above until the glacier line. The extent of their development is a function of the age of the underlying rocks as well;
Holocene The Holocene ( ) is the current geological epoch. It began approximately 11,650 cal years Before Present (), after the Last Glacial Period, which concluded with the Holocene glacial retreat. The Holocene and the preceding Pleistocene togethe ...
volcanic rocks have little periglacial alteration while older rock formations at times are heavily altered.
Lahar A lahar (, from jv, ꦮ꧀ꦭꦲꦂ) is a violent type of mudflow or debris flow composed of a slurry of pyroclastic material, rocky debris and water. The material flows down from a volcano, typically along a river valley. Lahars are extreme ...
s also occurred during the history of Parinacota; thick layers of lahar deposits are found on the southern and eastern slopes and form a fan on the northwestern slope of Parinacota. At this fan, lahar deposits reach distances of away from the volcano. Erosion has formed gullies on the upper sector of Parinacota. Otherwise, the volcanic rocks of Parinacota are well preserved owing to the
arid A region is arid when it severely lacks available water, to the extent of hindering or preventing the growth and development of plant and animal life. Regions with arid climates tend to lack vegetation and are called xeric or desertic. Most ar ...
climate and the youth of the volcano.


Petrology

Volcanic rocks erupted by Parinacota range in composition from
basaltic andesite Basaltic andesite is a volcanic rock that is intermediate in composition between basalt and andesite. It is composed predominantly of augite and plagioclase. Basaltic andesite can be found in volcanoes around the world, including in Central Ameri ...
to
rhyolite Rhyolite ( ) is the most silica-rich of volcanic rocks. It is generally glassy or fine-grained (aphanitic) in texture, but may be porphyritic, containing larger mineral crystals (phenocrysts) in an otherwise fine-grained groundmass. The mineral ...
. Andesites from the old cone are classified as
hornblende Hornblende is a complex inosilicate series of minerals. It is not a recognized mineral in its own right, but the name is used as a general or field term, to refer to a dark amphibole. Hornblende minerals are common in igneous and metamorphic rocks ...
and
pyroxene The pyroxenes (commonly abbreviated to ''Px'') are a group of important rock-forming inosilicate minerals found in many igneous and metamorphic rocks. Pyroxenes have the general formula , where X represents calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), iron (Fe II) ...
andesites.
Mineral In geology and mineralogy, a mineral or mineral species is, broadly speaking, a solid chemical compound with a fairly well-defined chemical composition and a specific crystal structure that occurs naturally in pure form.John P. Rafferty, ed. ( ...
s found within the rocks include
amphibole Amphibole () is a group of inosilicate minerals, forming prism or needlelike crystals, composed of double chain tetrahedra, linked at the vertices and generally containing ions of iron and/or magnesium in their structures. Its IMA symbol is A ...
,
apatite Apatite is a group of phosphate minerals, usually hydroxyapatite, fluorapatite and chlorapatite, with high concentrations of OH−, F− and Cl− ions, respectively, in the crystal. The formula of the admixture of the three most common e ...
,
biotite Biotite is a common group of phyllosilicate minerals within the mica group, with the approximate chemical formula . It is primarily a solid-solution series between the iron-endmember annite, and the magnesium-endmember phlogopite; more alumino ...
,
clinopyroxene The pyroxenes (commonly abbreviated to ''Px'') are a group of important rock-forming inosilicate minerals found in many igneous and metamorphic rocks. Pyroxenes have the general formula , where X represents calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), iron (Fe II) ...
,
iron oxide Iron oxides are chemical compounds composed of iron and oxygen. Several iron oxides are recognized. All are black magnetic solids. Often they are non-stoichiometric. Oxyhydroxides are a related class of compounds, perhaps the best known of whic ...
and
titanium oxide Titanium oxide may refer to: * Titanium dioxide (titanium(IV) oxide), TiO2 * Titanium(II) oxide (titanium monoxide), TiO, a non-stoichiometric oxide * Titanium(III) oxide (dititanium trioxide), Ti2O3 * Ti3O * Ti2O * δ-TiOx (x= 0.68–0.75) * Tin ...
,
feldspar Feldspars are a group of rock-forming aluminium tectosilicate minerals, also containing other cations such as sodium, calcium, potassium, or barium. The most common members of the feldspar group are the ''plagioclase'' (sodium-calcium) feldsp ...
,
olivine The mineral olivine () is a magnesium iron silicate with the chemical formula . It is a type of nesosilicate or orthosilicate. The primary component of the Earth's upper mantle, it is a common mineral in Earth's subsurface, but weathers quickl ...
,
orthopyroxene The pyroxenes (commonly abbreviated to ''Px'') are a group of important rock-forming inosilicate minerals found in many igneous and metamorphic rocks. Pyroxenes have the general formula , where X represents calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), iron (Fe II) ...
, pyroxene,
sanidine Sanidine is the high temperature form of potassium feldspar with a general formula K(AlSi3O8). Sanidine is found most typically in felsic volcanic rocks such as obsidian, rhyolite and trachyte. Sanidine crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal system ...
and
zircon Zircon () is a mineral belonging to the group of nesosilicates and is a source of the metal zirconium. Its chemical name is zirconium(IV) silicate, and its corresponding chemical formula is Zr SiO4. An empirical formula showing some of the r ...
. Not all of these minerals are found in rocks from all stages of Parinacota. Some of these minerals, such as
quartz Quartz is a hard, crystalline mineral composed of silica (silicon dioxide). The atoms are linked in a continuous framework of SiO4 silicon-oxygen tetrahedra, with each oxygen being shared between two tetrahedra, giving an overall chemical form ...
and sanidine, were at least in part formed by the inclusion of foreign rocks into the magma.
Gabbro Gabbro () is a phaneritic (coarse-grained), mafic intrusive igneous rock formed from the slow cooling of magnesium-rich and iron-rich magma into a holocrystalline mass deep beneath the Earth's surface. Slow-cooling, coarse-grained gabbro is che ...
and
granite Granite () is a coarse-grained (phaneritic) intrusive igneous rock composed mostly of quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase. It forms from magma with a high content of silica and alkali metal oxides that slowly cools and solidifies undergro ...
are found as
xenolith A xenolith ("foreign rock") is a rock fragment (country rock) that becomes enveloped in a larger rock during the latter's development and solidification. In geology, the term ''xenolith'' is almost exclusively used to describe inclusions in igne ...
s. Overall, volcanic rocks at Parinacota belong to a
potassium Potassium is the chemical element with the symbol K (from Neo-Latin ''kalium'') and atomic number19. Potassium is a silvery-white metal that is soft enough to be cut with a knife with little force. Potassium metal reacts rapidly with atmosphe ...
-rich
calc-alkaline The calc-alkaline magma series is one of two main subdivisions of the subalkaline magma series, the other subalkaline magma series being the tholeiitic series. A magma series is a series of compositions that describes the evolution of a mafic mag ...
suite. The volcanites have characteristically high contents of
barium Barium is a chemical element with the symbol Ba and atomic number 56. It is the fifth element in group 2 and is a soft, silvery alkaline earth metal. Because of its high chemical reactivity, barium is never found in nature as a free element. Th ...
and strontium, especially in the youngest Ajata rocks where their concentration is higher than in any other CVZ volcanic rock. A trend to a more
tholeiitic The tholeiitic magma series is one of two main magma series in subalkaline igneous rocks, the other being the calc-alkaline series. A magma series is a chemically distinct range of magma compositions that describes the evolution of a mafic magma i ...
composition in younger eruptions may reflect an increased magma flux and a decreased interaction with the upper crust. The magmas that formed Parinacota and Pomerape are considered to be a group distinct from these that formed older volcanic centres in the region, but also distinct from the magmas that formed the subsidiary vent of Pomerape and the Ajata cones; these tend to be more
mafic A mafic mineral or rock is a silicate mineral or igneous rock rich in magnesium and iron. Most mafic minerals are dark in color, and common rock-forming mafic minerals include olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite. Common mafic rocks include ...
. In turn, the younger and older Ajata cone lavas have different compositions, one having a high quantity of strontium and the other a low one. Magmas in the Parinacota region formed through distinct processes. One of these is fractional crystallization within closed
magma chamber A magma chamber is a large pool of liquid rock beneath the surface of the Earth. The molten rock, or magma, in such a chamber is less dense than the surrounding country rock, which produces buoyant forces on the magma that tend to drive it upw ...
s. Another is the mixing of different magmas, one of which in the case of Parinacota may be the Ajata magmas. More specifically, two different magmas with compositions akin to the Ajata magmas contributed the mafic element to the Parinacota magmas. Some differences in magma composition between various volcanoes and stages may reflect the occurrence of several different magma differentiation events. Processes within magma chambers play an important role in the formation of the magmas erupted by volcanoes. The diversity of the petrographic patterns suggest that Parinacota did not have a single major magma chamber, but rather various magma reservoirs at various depths and with variable interconnection patterns. Some Ajata magmas bypassed the shallow reservoirs completely. Starting about 28,000 years ago however several different magma systems consolidated into one, probably as a result of more frequent injections of new magma and/or the accumulation of
cumulate Cumulate rocks are igneous rocks formed by the accumulation of crystals from a magma either by settling or floating. Cumulate rocks are named according to their texture; cumulate texture is diagnostic of the conditions of formation of this group o ...
s that insulated the magmatic system. The transit of the magmas through the conduit system probably takes several ten thousand years, and the residence time within magma chambers could be on the order of 100,000 years. In the case of Parinacota, there is a noticeable difference between the pre-sector collapse and post-sector collapse magmas, indicating that a large turnover of the magmatic system was triggered by the landslide. More specifically, after the collapse erupted rocks became more mafic and their composition more influenced by fractional crystallization, while the preceding magmas were more strongly affected by mixing processes. Also, magma output increased significantly, while the resting time in the magma chambers decreased. Modelling indicates that over the short term, a collapse would cause activity to stop at a volcano of Parinacota's size, and over the long term the plumbing system would change and become shallower. Also, the plumbing system of the volcano would become more permissive to denser mafic magmas after a sector collapse, perhaps explaining why the Ajata vents were active after the collapse but the magma erupted through them influenced petrogenesis of main cone magmas much earlier. The magnitude of such changes is considerably larger than at neighbouring volcano Taapaca, where a sector collapse was not accompanied by changes in activity; presumably Parinacota's shallower magma supply system made it more susceptible to the effects of unloading. The source of the Parinacota magmas is ultimately the
mantle wedge A mantle wedge is a triangular shaped piece of mantle that lies above a subducting tectonic plate and below the overriding plate. This piece of mantle can be identified using seismic velocity imaging as well as earthquake maps. Subducting oceanic ...
above the
slab Slab or SLAB may refer to: Physical materials * Concrete slab, a flat concrete plate used in construction * Stone slab, a flat stone used in construction * Slab (casting), a length of metal * Slab (geology), that portion of a tectonic plate that i ...
of the Nazca Plate. Fluids released from the slab flux the wedge and trigger the formation of melts, with the assistance of asthenospheric material that is hotter and gets transported into the wedge. These ascending magmas then interact with the crust, resulting in extensive changes to their composition. The area in the crust where such interaction takes place is known as "MASH" or "Melting Assimilation Storage Homogenization", and it is there that the base magmas are formed which then enter into shallow magmatic systems. Further, the relative thickness of the crust and narrowness of the mantle wedge mean that
garnet Garnets () are a group of silicate minerals that have been used since the Bronze Age as gemstones and abrasives. All species of garnets possess similar physical properties and crystal forms, but differ in chemical composition. The different s ...
is stable within the wedge, causing the magmas to be influenced by garnet-linked petrogenic processes. Shallower crustal components such as the locally extensive Lauca-Perez ignimbrite may have been assimilated by Parinacota as well. These crustal components contributed about 12% of the primitive magmas as erupted by the Ajata cones, while the mantle wedge contributed 83%. Fluids from the slab and sediments subducted in the Peru-Chile Trench added the remaining 3 and 2%.


Climate

Average temperatures at Parinacota are about , with the isotherm hovering between elevation. On neighbouring Sajama, on the summit temperatures range . The atmosphere becomes thinner and drier at higher altitudes, allowing both increased solar radiation to reach the surface during daytime and more thermal radiation from the ground to escape to the top of the atmosphere during night. This pattern determines a large diurnal temperature amplitude in the region, with variations on the scale of . Average precipitation at Parinacota is about . Between about 12 and 26° degrees southern latitude, most of the
moisture Moisture is the presence of a liquid, especially water, often in trace amounts. Small amounts of water may be found, for example, in the air (humidity), in foods, and in some commercial products. Moisture also refers to the amount of water vapo ...
that arrives was absorbed by winds over the
Amazon Amazon most often refers to: * Amazons, a tribe of female warriors in Greek mythology * Amazon rainforest, a rainforest covering most of the Amazon basin * Amazon River, in South America * Amazon (company), an American multinational technology c ...
and transported to the Andes. Thus, humidity increases from west to east, with the Pacific coastline being particularly dry. Parinacota lies within the ''puna seca'' climate region, where precipitation occurs over 7 or 8 months of wet season and results in a total amount of , most of it falling during the summer months when the Altiplano warms up under the sun, generating a
monsoon A monsoon () is traditionally a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation but is now used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with annual latitudinal oscil ...
-like wind current. The summer precipitation is also known as the "Bolivian winter" or "Altiplanic winter". This is an unusual precipitation pattern for Chile; most of the country has a
mediterranean climate A Mediterranean climate (also called a dry summer temperate climate ''Cs'') is a temperate climate sub-type, generally characterized by warm, dry summers and mild, fairly wet winters; these weather conditions are typically experienced in the ...
where most precipitation occurs during the winter months. The arid climate is a consequence of the activity of the
South Pacific High The South Pacific High is a semi-permanent subtropical anticyclone located in the southeast Pacific Ocean. The area of high atmospheric pressure and the presence of the Humboldt Current in the underlying ocean make the west coast of Peru and no ...
just off the coast, the
rain shadow A rain shadow is an area of significantly reduced rainfall behind a mountainous region, on the side facing away from prevailing winds, known as its leeward side. Evaporated moisture from water bodies (such as oceans and large lakes) is carrie ...
effect of the Andes and the cold
Humboldt Current The Humboldt Current, also called the Peru Current, is a cold, low- salinity ocean current that flows north along the western coast of South America.Montecino, Vivian, and Carina B. Lange. "The Humboldt Current System: Ecosystem components and pr ...
in the Pacific Ocean. The dry climate became apparent in the region 10–15 million years ago. The generally arid climate of the region means that volcanoes can remain topographically recognizable for a long time, being subject to only minimal erosion. Likewise, the
groundwater Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in rock and soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. About 30 percent of all readily available freshwater in the world is groundwater. A unit of rock or an unconsolidate ...
pools in the region tend to be fairly old, going back to 13,000–12,000 years ago. The climate was not always so dry in the past; around 28,000 years ago and between 13,000 and 8,200 years ago a wet period was accompanied by advances of glaciers. The middle
Holocene The Holocene ( ) is the current geological epoch. It began approximately 11,650 cal years Before Present (), after the Last Glacial Period, which concluded with the Holocene glacial retreat. The Holocene and the preceding Pleistocene togethe ...
was dry, after 4,000 years
before present Before Present (BP) years, or "years before present", is a time scale used mainly in archaeology, geology and other scientific disciplines to specify when events occurred relative to the origin of practical radiocarbon dating in the 1950s. Becaus ...
climate became wetter again. Because of the aridity, relatively little sediment is flushed into the Peru-Chile Trench from land, which has effects on the tectonics of the region and the chemistry of the magmas erupted in the volcanoes. Winds at Parinacota come generally from the west, except during the wet season when easterly winds are common. This wind pattern is controlled by the formation of a
high-pressure area A high-pressure area, high, or anticyclone, is an area near the surface of a planet where the atmospheric pressure is greater than the pressure in the surrounding regions. Highs are middle-scale meteorological features that result from interpl ...
and a shift of the
subtropical jet stream Jet streams are fast flowing, narrow, meandering air currents in the atmospheres of some planets, including Earth. On Earth, the main jet streams are located near the altitude of the tropopause and are westerly winds (flowing west to east). ...
to the south.


Flora and fauna

The Andes are a long mountain chain with different climates at various latitudes and elevations. Thus, vegetation differs from one location to the other. In the region of Parinacota, between altitude the vegetation is formed by
shrub steppe A shrub (often also called a bush) is a small-to-medium-sized perennial woody plant. Unlike herbaceous plants, shrubs have persistent woody stems above the ground. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen. They are distinguished from trees ...
such as '' Baccharis incarum'', '' Baccharis tola'', '' Fabiana densa''; the dominant species are '' Deyuexia breviaristata'', ''
Festuca orthophylla ''Festuca'' (fescue) is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the grass family Poaceae (subfamily Pooideae). They are evergreen or herbaceous perennial tufted grasses with a height range of and a cosmopolitan distribution, occurring on ever ...
'', '' Parastrephia lucida'' and '' Parastrphia quadrangularis''. During the wet season, this vegetation is augmented by herbaceous plants. Above a grass vegetation dominates, which on rocky ground occasionally gives way to cushion vegetation such as ''
Azorella compacta __NOTOC__ Yareta or llareta (''Azorella compacta'', known historically as ''Azorella yareta'', from ''yarita'' in the Quechua language) is a velvety, chartreuse cushion plant in the family Apiaceae which is native to South America. It grows in th ...
'', whose yellow colour is characteristic and can be seen from large distances. This type of xeric vegetation is also known as " puna". '' Polylepis tarapacana'' is the only true tree found at these altitudes and forms small woods, up to elevations of . Close to water, the ''bofedal''
marsh A marsh is a wetland that is dominated by herbaceous rather than woody plant species.Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 497 p Marshes can often be found at ...
-like vegetation prevails, with '' Oxychloe andina'' being the dominant species. Some genera and species are
endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found elsew ...
to the puna; they include '' Chilotrichiops'', '' Lampaya'', '' Parastrephia'' and '' Oreocerus''. File:2005.11.12 09 Lago Chungará Chile.jpg, File:Lago Chungara 02.jpg, Vegetation at Lake Chungará; the summit of Parinacota is enveloped in a cloud Among the ecological factors that determine vegetation in the region are lack of water, saline soils, plentiful solar irradiation, herbivores, wind and cold nighttime temperatures. These plant species which release airborne
pollen Pollen is a powdery substance produced by seed plants. It consists of pollen grains (highly reduced microgametophytes), which produce male gametes (sperm cells). Pollen grains have a hard coat made of sporopollenin that protects the gametophyt ...
can often be identified in samples taken from Parinacota's icecap, where winds deposit the pollen grains. File:CHUNGARÁ LAKE, CHILE - Flickr - Alejandro Gutiérrez Tapia.jpg, Animals in front of Lake Chungará File:Lac chungarà.jpg, Animals in front of Lake Chungará Animal species that live around Parinacota include
flamingo Flamingos or flamingoes are a type of Wader, wading bird in the Family (biology), family Phoenicopteridae, which is the only extant family in the order Phoenicopteriformes. There are four flamingo species distributed throughout the Americas ...
,
guanaco The guanaco (; ''Lama guanicoe'') is a camelid native to South America, closely related to the llama. Guanacos are one of two wild South American camelids, the other being the vicuña, which lives at higher elevations. Etymology The guanaco g ...
, huemul, rhea,
vicuña The vicuña (''Lama vicugna'') or vicuna (both , very rarely spelled ''vicugna'', its former genus name) is one of the two wild South American camelids, which live in the high alpine areas of the Andes, the other being the guanaco, which live ...
and
viscacha Viscacha or vizcacha (, ) are rodents of two genera (''Lagidium'' and ''Lagostomus'') in the family Chinchillidae. They are native to South America and convergently resemble rabbits. The five extant species of viscacha are: *The plains visca ...
. Among predatory animals feature the Andean cat, the
pampas cat The Pampas cat (''Leopardus colocola'') is a small wild cat native to South America. It is listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List as habitat conversion and destruction may cause the population to decline in the future. It is named after ...
and the puma. The most abundant animal species however are
rodent Rodents (from Latin , 'to gnaw') are mammals of the order Rodentia (), which are characterized by a single pair of continuously growing incisors in each of the upper and lower jaws. About 40% of all mammal species are rodents. They are na ...
s, some of which can be found up to the highest treelines and which include the viscacha and the burrowing
tuco-tuco A tuco-tuco is a neotropical rodent in the family Ctenomyidae.Parada, A., G. D’Elia, C.J. Bidau, and E.P. Lessa. 2011. Species Groups and the Evolutionary Diversification of Tuco-Tucos, genus ''Ctenomys'' (Rodentia: Ctenomyidae). ''Journal of M ...
. Also important are birds, such as the rhea, the
tinamou Tinamous () form an order of birds called Tinamiformes (), comprising a single family called Tinamidae (), divided into two distinct subfamilies, containing 46 species found in Mexico, Central America, and South America. The word "tinamou" come ...
s, flamingos and various predatory and wetland birds, including the
Andean condor The Andean condor (''Vultur gryphus'') is a giant South American Cathartid vulture and is the only member of the genus ''Vultur''. Found in the Andes mountains and adjacent Pacific coasts of western South America, the Andean condor is the larg ...
. Many mammal species in the area were decimated in the past, although some have displayed a recent recovery in numbers. Parinacota and surroundings in 1965 were made part of the
Lauca National Park Lauca National Park is located in Chile's far north, in the Andean range. It encompasses an area of 1,379 km2 of altiplano and mountains, the latter consisting mainly of enormous volcanoes. Las Vicuñas National Reserve is its neighbour to ...
, which was further modified in 1970 and 1983. This natural preserve features a unique flora and fauna for Chile. However, potential future water diversions from Lake Chungará, the hunting of indigenous animals, overharvesting of the vegetation, overgrazing and the existence of a major border-crossing highway close to Lake Chungará constitute ongoing threats to the environment around Parinacota. Lake Chungará adds to the local flora and fauna. These include
charophyte Charophyta () is a group of freshwater green algae, called charophytes (), sometimes treated as a phylum, division, yet also as a superdivision or an unranked clade. The terrestrial plants, the Embryophyta emerged within Charophyta, possibly fro ...
s,
diatom A diatom (Neo-Latin ''diatoma''), "a cutting through, a severance", from el, διάτομος, diátomos, "cut in half, divided equally" from el, διατέμνω, diatémno, "to cut in twain". is any member of a large group comprising sev ...
s and aquatic macrophyte plants. Animal taxa found in the lake include
bivalve Bivalvia (), in previous centuries referred to as the Lamellibranchiata and Pelecypoda, is a class of marine and freshwater molluscs that have laterally compressed bodies enclosed by a shell consisting of two hinged parts. As a group, bival ...
s,
gastropod The gastropods (), commonly known as snails and slugs, belong to a large taxonomic class of invertebrates within the phylum Mollusca called Gastropoda (). This class comprises snails and slugs from saltwater, from freshwater, and from land. T ...
s and
ostracod Ostracods, or ostracodes, are a class of the Crustacea (class Ostracoda), sometimes known as seed shrimp. Some 70,000 species (only 13,000 of which are extant) have been identified, grouped into several orders. They are small crustaceans, typic ...
s. About 19 species of ''
Orestias Orestias ( el, Ὀρεστιάς) was an ancient Greek settlement next to the Maritsa (or Evros) river, near or at the site of present-day Edirne, and close to the current border between Turkey and Greece. Legends claim that Orestias was founded ...
'' fish are found in the lake, some of which are endemic. The
speciation Speciation is the evolutionary process by which populations evolve to become distinct species. The biologist Orator F. Cook coined the term in 1906 for cladogenesis, the splitting of lineages, as opposed to anagenesis, phyletic evolution within ...
of '' Orestias chungarensis'', '' Orestias laucaensis'' and ''
Orestias piacotensis Orestias ( el, Ὀρεστιάς) was an ancient Greek settlement next to the Maritsa (or Evros) river, near or at the site of present-day Edirne, and close to the current border between Turkey and Greece. Legends claim that Orestias was founded ...
'' was aided by the volcanic activity of Parinacota and its collapse, which separated the watersheds inhabited by their ancestor species and caused
allopatric speciation Allopatric speciation () – also referred to as geographic speciation, vicariant speciation, or its earlier name the dumbbell model – is a mode of speciation that occurs when biological populations become geographically isolated from ...
.


Eruptive history

Parinacota underwent five separate stages of volcanic activity. A relatively young age of the last eruption is presumed considering the good preservation of volcanic landforms, such as lava flows and the summit crater;
SERNAGEOMIN 250px, Sernageomin building in Providencia, Santiago. The National Geology and Mining Service ( es, Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería; SERNAGEOMIN) is a Chilean government agency. Its function is to provide geological information and adv ...
considers it the most active volcano of the Central Andes by magma output. The high magma output may be facilitated by the presence of faults that facilitate the rising of magma; the Condoriri lineament in the area could be the fault that channels magma to Parinacota. The injection of mafic magmas into magma chambers and the mixing between magmas of different composition has been held responsible for the onset of eruptions at many volcanoes including Parinacota.


Chungará Andesites and lava domes

The oldest volcanic structure of Parinacota are the "Chungará Andesites" and the overlying lava dome, which form the platform that crops out on the southern side of the Parinacota volcano, facing Lake Chungará. Erosion and glacial action has smoothed the surfaces of these rocks, leaving no primary textures. This platform was erupted between 300,000 and 100,000 years ago. The finer subdivision defines the "Chungará Andesites" as having erupted 163,000–117,000 years ago and the "Rhyolite domes" being 52,000–42,000 years old. Other dates obtained on these stages are 110,000 ± 4,000 and 264,000 ± 30,000 years ago for the Chungará Andesites and over 112,000 ± 5,000 for the "rhyolite domes". These two units are also called "Parinacota 1". A hiatus of over 60,000 years occurred between the eruption of the "Chungará Andesites" and the formation of the lava dome plateau. Traces of explosive activity during the lava dome stage have been found. The "Chungará Andesites" have a volume of over ; material from these stages was incorporated in the collapse deposit. Pomerape volcano developed during this time as well. This and the long delay between the eruption of the Chungará Andesites and the rest of the volcano's history may imply that the magmatic systems involved were different. Magma output during the early stage was low, with a magma output of with the dome growth contributing .


Old Cone and sector collapse

At the same time as the lava domes were emplaced, the Old Cone started growing a short distance northwest of the domes. The temporal gap between this stage of Parinacota's activity and the previous one may be because the deposits from this time interval are only poorly preserved. The Old Cone developed over 85,000 years until the sector collapse, and is also known as Parinacota 2. Outcrops of this stage are found mostly low on the southeastern and north-northwestern slopes; individual dates obtained on rocks from this stage are 20,000 ± 4,000, 46,700 ± 1,600, and 53,000 ± 11,000 years ago. The "Border Dacites" also belong to this stage, being dated at 28,000 ± 1,000 years ago. Likewise, ash fall deposits found in the Cotacotani lakes have been dated to this period of volcanic history, indicating that the Old Cone occasionally featured explosive eruptions. This stage erupted andesite and dacite in the form of three distinct suites. Magma output during this time was about . This also was a time of glacier growth and development in the region, and consequently a glacier cap developed on the Old Cone during this time. By the time of the sector collapse, the glaciers were already retreating. The date of the collapse is not known with certainty, because dates have been obtained on various materials with different stratigraphic interpretations. 18,000 years ago was considered the most likely estimate, but ages as young as 8,000 years ago were also proposed. Radiocarbon dates from peat within the collapse deposit indicated an age of 13,500 years ago, or 11,500–13,500 years ago. Many dates were obtained on material predating the collapse that was embedded within the collapse deposit, and thus the most likely time for the collapse was considered to be 8,000 years ago. Later research indicated an age between 13,000 and 20,000 years ago, the most recent proposal is 8,800 ± 500 years before present. The postulated period coincides with a global clustering of volcano collapse events; perhaps global warming occurring during this time when the last glacial maximum approached its end predisposed volcanoes to collapse. On the other hand, the younger dates of around 8,000 years ago significantly post-date the end of glaciation, thus if the collapse occurred at that time it was probably unrelated to glacial fluctuations. This collapse and the collapse of Socompa farther south may have affected humans in the region.


Young cone and Ajata

After the collapse, the cone was relatively rapidly rebuilt during the Young Cone stage reaching a total volume of approximately . The units erupted during this time are also known as the "healing flows" or Parinacota 3. During this stage, volcanic activity was focused on the summit crater. This stage was relatively short and accompanied by an increase in the magma output of Parinacota to depending on how the duration of this stage is measured. The higher magma flux is comparable to peak output by other large stratovolcanoes. The maximum possible magma flux at Parinacota during this period is about . Apart from lava flows, sub- Plinian eruptions generated pumice and scoria flows, with some individual explosive eruptions dated to 4,800 ± 800, 4,300 ± 2,600 and 3,600 ± 1,100 years ago. Based on the patterns of
tephra Tephra is fragmental material produced by a volcanic eruption regardless of composition, fragment size, or emplacement mechanism. Volcanologists also refer to airborne fragments as pyroclasts. Once clasts have fallen to the ground, they rem ...
deposition in Lake Chungará, it is inferred that the rate of explosive activity increased after the early Holocene until recent times; in addition, tephra falls contributed
calcium Calcium is a chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. As an alkaline earth metal, calcium is a reactive metal that forms a dark oxide-nitride layer when exposed to air. Its physical and chemical properties are most similar to ...
to the lake waters and impacted its biological productivity. It has been proposed that dust particles found in
ice core An ice core is a core sample that is typically removed from an ice sheet or a high mountain glacier. Since the ice forms from the incremental buildup of annual layers of snow, lower layers are older than upper ones, and an ice core contains ic ...
s at Nevado Sajama may actually be tephra from Parinacota. Various Holocene dates have been obtained from rocks on the southern flank of the Young Cone; the youngest date for this stage was obtained by argon-argon dating: 500 ± 300 years ago. Further, an age of less than 200 BP has been determined by
radiocarbon dating Radiocarbon dating (also referred to as carbon dating or carbon-14 dating) is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon, a radioactive isotope of carbon. The method was dev ...
for a pyroclastic flow. Other recent activity, originally considered to be the youngest, formed the Ajata cones. These cones are constructed by basaltic andesite with a volume of about . The Ajata cones form four groups of different ages: The lower Ajata flows were erupted 5,985 ± 640 and 6,560 ± 1,220 years ago, the upper Ajata flows 4,800 ± 4,000 years ago, the middle Ajata flows 9,900 ± 2,100 years ago, and the High Ajata flows 2,000 – 1,300 years ago. These groups also form compositionally distinct units. The youngest surface exposure date obtained is 1,385 ± 350 years ago. According to SERNAGEOMIN,
Aymara Aymara may refer to: Languages and people * Aymaran languages, the second most widespread Andean language ** Aymara language, the main language within that family ** Central Aymara, the other surviving branch of the Aymara(n) family, which today ...
legends referencing volcanic activity imply a latest eruption date of 1800 AD. One history narrating of a bearded man, son of the Sun, that was mistreated by a local town head with the exception of a woman and her son. They were warned that a great disaster would happen, and as they fled from the town it was destroyed by fire. Details of the story imply that the story might reference a small explosive eruption that sent a pyroclastic flow into Lake Chungará after the time of the
Spanish Spanish might refer to: * Items from or related to Spain: **Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain **Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries **Spanish cuisine Other places * Spanish, Ontario, Cana ...
conquest; the theory that it references the sector collapse conversely appears to be unlikely.


Present-day activity and hazards

Presently, Parinacota is dormant, but future volcanic activity is possible. Explicit
fumarolic A fumarole (or fumerole) is a vent in the surface of the Earth or other rocky planet from which hot volcanic gases and vapors are emitted, without any accompanying liquids or solids. Fumaroles are characteristic of the late stages of volcani ...
activity has not been observed, but satellite imaging has shown the evidence of thermal anomalies on the scale of , and reports of sulfurous smells at the summit imply that a fumarole may exist in the summit area. The volcano is
seismically active An active fault is a fault (geology), fault that is likely to become the source of another earthquake sometime in the future. Geologists commonly consider faults to be active if there has been movement observed or evidence of seismic activity duri ...
including one potential
seismic swarm In seismology, an earthquake swarm is a sequence of seismic events occurring in a local area within a relatively short period. The time span used to define a swarm varies, but may be days, months, or years. Such an energy release is different f ...
, but earthquake activity is less than at Guallatiri farther south. Based on
Landsat The Landsat program is the longest-running enterprise for acquisition of satellite imagery of Earth. It is a joint NASA / USGS program. On 23 July 1972, the Earth Resources Technology Satellite was launched. This was eventually renamed to Lan ...
Thematic Mapper A Thematic Mapper (TM) is one of the Earth observing sensors introduced in the Landsat program. The first was placed aboard Landsat 4 (decommissioned in 2001), and another was operational aboard Landsat 5 up to 2012. /sup> TM sensors feature seven ...
images, it was considered a potentially active volcano in 1991. The volcano is one among ten volcanoes in northern Chile monitored by SERNAGEOMIN and has a volcano hazard level published. The relatively low population density on the Bolivian side of the volcano means that renewed activity would not constitute a major threat there, although the town of Sajama may be affected. The Arica-La Paz highway runs close to the volcano and might be threatened by mud and debris flows, along with small communities in the area. Communities close to the volcano include Caquena, Chucullo and
Parinacota Parinacota (in hispanicized spelling), Parina Quta or Parinaquta (Aymara, ''parina'' flamingo, ''quta'' lake, "flamingo lake", other hispanicized spellings ''Parinaccota, Parinajota'') may refer to: Lakes * Parinaquta (Carabaya), in Peru, Puno R ...
. Potential hazards from future activity include the development of lahars from interactions between magma and the ice cap, as well as eruptions from the flank vents; ash fall from prolonged flank vent eruptions could disturb pastures in the region. The important natural preserve that is the Lauca National Park could suffer significant disruption from renewed eruptions of Parinacota.


Legends and archeology

The region around Parinacota has been inhabited for about 7,000–10,000 years. Politically, since 1,000 years ago first
Tiwanaku Tiwanaku ( es, Tiahuanaco or ) is a Pre-Columbian archaeological site in western Bolivia near Lake Titicaca, about 70 kilometers from La Paz, and it is one of the largest sites in South America. Surface remains currently cover around 4 square kilo ...
and then the Inka ruled over the region. In contrast with many other local mountains, no archeological findings are reported from the summit of Parinacota. Several legends concern Parinacota and its sister mountain Pomerape, which are often portrayed as unmarried sisters. Some involve a dispute with or between the mountains
Tacora Tacora is a stratovolcano located in the Andes of the Arica y Parinacota Region of Chile. Near the border with Peru, it is one of the northernmost volcanoes of Chile. It is part of the Central Volcanic Zone in Chile, one of the four volcanic b ...
and Sajama, often resulting in Tacora being driven off.


Gallery

File:Wiki Tour - Volcán Parinacota.JPG, Parinacota on the right and Pomerape on the left File:Sopka Parinacota a Pomerape - Chile - panoramio.jpg, Parinacota and Pomerape File:Sopka Parinacota a Pomerape - Chile - panoramio (1).jpg, Parinacota on the right and Pomerape just right of the centre File:Parque Nacional Lauca - Flickr - jaimep.araya.jpg, Parinacota, on the left Pomerape File:Nevados de payachata parinacota pomerape.jpg, Parinacota, on the left Pomerape


See also

*
List of volcanoes in Bolivia The country of Bolivia hosts numerous activeIn vulcanology and this article active volcanoes are those with Holocene eruption, that means eruptions in the last 10,000 years. and extinct volcanoes across its territory. The active volcanoes are i ...
*