Neoclassical architecture
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Neoclassical architecture, sometimes referred to as Classical Revival architecture, is an
architectural style An architectural style is a classification of buildings (and nonbuilding structures) based on a set of characteristics and features, including overall appearance, arrangement of the components, method of construction, building materials used, for ...
produced by the Neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century in
Italy Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe, Western Europe. It consists of Italian Peninsula, a peninsula that extends into the Mediterranean Sea, with the Alps on its northern land b ...
,
France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
and
Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...
. It became one of the most prominent architectural styles in the
Western world The Western world, also known as the West, primarily refers to various nations and state (polity), states in Western Europe, Northern America, and Australasia; with some debate as to whether those in Eastern Europe and Latin America also const ...
. The prevailing styles of architecture in most of Europe for the previous two centuries,
Renaissance architecture Renaissance architecture is the European architecture of the period between the early 15th and early 16th centuries in different regions, demonstrating a conscious revival and development of certain elements of Ancient Greece, ancient Greek and ...
and
Baroque architecture Baroque architecture is a highly decorative and theatrical style which appeared in Italy in the late 16th century and gradually spread across Europe. It was originally introduced by the Catholic Church, particularly by the Jesuits, as a means to ...
, already represented partial revivals of the
Classical architecture Classical architecture typically refers to architecture consciously derived from the principles of Ancient Greek architecture, Greek and Ancient Roman architecture, Roman architecture of classical antiquity, or more specifically, from ''De archit ...
of
ancient Rome In modern historiography, ancient Rome is the Roman people, Roman civilisation from the founding of Rome, founding of the Italian city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, collapse of the Western Roman Em ...
and
ancient Greek architecture Ancient Greek architecture came from the Greeks, or Hellenes, whose Ancient Greece, culture flourished on the Greek mainland, the Peloponnese, the Aegean Islands, and in colonies in Asia Minor, Anatolia and Italy for a period from about 900 BC ...
, but the Neoclassical movement aimed to strip away the excesses of Late Baroque and return to a purer, more complete, and more authentic classical style, adapted to modern purposes. The development of
archaeology Archaeology or archeology is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of Artifact (archaeology), artifacts, architecture, biofact (archaeology), biofacts or ecofacts, ...
and published accurate records of surviving classical buildings was crucial in the emergence of Neoclassical architecture. In many countries, there was an initial wave essentially drawing on Roman architecture, followed, from about the start of the 19th century, by a second wave of
Greek Revival architecture Greek Revival architecture is a architectural style, style that began in the middle of the 18th century but which particularly flourished in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, predominantly in northern Europe, the United States, and Canada, ...
. This followed increased understanding of Greek survivals. As the 19th century continued, the style tended to lose its original rather austere purity in variants like the French
Empire style The Empire style (, ''style Empire'') is an early-nineteenth-century design movement in architecture, furniture, other decorative arts, and the visual arts, representing the second phase of Neoclassicism. It flourished between 1800 and 1815 duri ...
. The term "neoclassical" is often used very loosely for any building using some of the classical architectural vocabulary. In form, Neoclassical architecture emphasizes the wall rather than
chiaroscuro In art, chiaroscuro ( , ; ) is the use of strong contrasts between light and dark, usually bold contrasts affecting a whole composition. It is also a technical term used by artists and art historians for the use of contrasts of light to ach ...
and maintains separate identities to each of its parts. The style is manifested both in its details as a reaction against the
Rococo Rococo, less commonly Roccoco ( , ; or ), also known as Late Baroque, is an exceptionally ornamental and dramatic style of architecture, art and decoration which combines asymmetry, scrolling curves, gilding, white and pastel colours, sculpte ...
style of naturalistic ornament, and in its architectural formulae as an outgrowth of some classicizing features of the Late Baroque architectural tradition. Therefore, the style is defined by symmetry, simple geometry, and social demands instead of ornament. In the 21st century, a version of the style continues, sometimes called
New Classical architecture New Classical architecture, also known as New Classicism or Contemporary Classical architecture, is a Contemporary architecture, contemporary movement that builds upon the principles of Classical architecture. It is sometimes considered the mode ...
or New Classicism.


History

Neoclassical architecture is a specific style and moment in the late 18th and early 19th centuries that was specifically associated with the Enlightenment,
empiricism In philosophy, empiricism is an epistemological view which holds that true knowledge or justification comes only or primarily from sensory experience and empirical evidence. It is one of several competing views within epistemology, along ...
, and the study of sites by early archaeologists. Classical architecture after about 1840 must be classified as one of a series of "revival" styles, such as Greek,
Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) is a Periodization, period of history and a European cultural movement covering the 15th and 16th centuries. It marked the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and was characterized by an effort to revive and sur ...
, or
Italianate The Italianate style was a distinct 19th-century phase in the history of Classical architecture. Like Palladianism and Neoclassicism, the Italianate style combined its inspiration from the models and architectural vocabulary of 16th-century It ...
. Various historians of the 19th century have made this clear since the 1970s. Classical architecture during the 20th century is classified less as a revival, and more a return to a style that was decelerated with the advent of
Modernism Modernism was an early 20th-century movement in literature, visual arts, and music that emphasized experimentation, abstraction, and Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy), subjective experience. Philosophy, politics, architecture, and soc ...
. Yet still Neoclassical architecture is beginning to be practiced again in the 21st century more in the form of
New Classical architecture New Classical architecture, also known as New Classicism or Contemporary Classical architecture, is a Contemporary architecture, contemporary movement that builds upon the principles of Classical architecture. It is sometimes considered the mode ...
and even in
Gentrification Gentrification is the process whereby the character of a neighborhood changes through the influx of more Wealth, affluent residents (the "gentry") and investment. There is no agreed-upon definition of gentrification. In public discourse, it has ...
and Historicism Architecture, the Neoclassical architecture or its important elements are still being used, even when
Postmodern architecture Postmodern architecture is a style or movement which emerged in the 1960s as a reaction against the austerity, formality, and lack of variety of modern architecture, particularly in the International Style (architecture), international style adv ...
is dominant throughout the world.


Palladianism

A return to more classical architectural forms as a reaction to the
Rococo Rococo, less commonly Roccoco ( , ; or ), also known as Late Baroque, is an exceptionally ornamental and dramatic style of architecture, art and decoration which combines asymmetry, scrolling curves, gilding, white and pastel colours, sculpte ...
style can be detected in some European architecture of the earlier 18th century, most vividly represented in the Palladian architecture of Georgian Britain and
Ireland Ireland (, ; ; Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean, in Northwestern Europe. Geopolitically, the island is divided between the Republic of Ireland (officially Names of the Irish state, named Irelan ...
. The name refers to the designs of the 16th-century Venetian architect Andrea Palladio. The
Baroque The Baroque ( , , ) is a Western Style (visual arts), style of Baroque architecture, architecture, Baroque music, music, Baroque dance, dance, Baroque painting, painting, Baroque sculpture, sculpture, poetry, and other arts that flourished from ...
style had never truly been to the English taste. Four influential books were published in the first quarter of the 18th century which highlighted the simplicity and purity of classical architecture: '' Vitruvius Britannicus'' by Colen Campbell (1715), Palladio's '' I quattro libri dell'architettura'' (''The Four Books of Architecture'', 1715), by
Leon Battista Alberti Leon Battista Alberti (; 14 February 1404 – 25 April 1472) was an Italian Renaissance humanist author, artist, architect, poet, Catholic priest, priest, linguistics, linguist, philosopher, and cryptography, cryptographer; he epitomised the natu ...
(first published in 1452) and ''The Designs of Inigo Jones... with Some Additional Designs'' (1727). The most popular was the four-volume ''Vitruvius Britannicus'' by Colen Campbell. The book contained architectural prints of famous British buildings that had been inspired by the great architects from Vitruvius to Palladio. At first the book mainly featured the work of
Inigo Jones Inigo Jones (15 July 1573 – 21 June 1652) was an English architect who was the first significant Architecture of England, architect in England in the early modern era and the first to employ Vitruvius, Vitruvian rules of proportion and symmet ...
, but the later tomes contained drawings and plans by Campbell and other 18th-century architects. Palladian architecture became well established in 18th-century Britain. At the forefront of the new school of design was the aristocratic "architect earl",
Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington and 4th Earl of Cork (25 April 1694 – 4 December 1753) was a British architect and noble often called the "Apollo of the Arts" and the "Architect Earl". The son of the 2nd Earl of Burlington and 3rd Ear ...
; in 1729, he and
William Kent William Kent (c. 1685 – 12 April 1748) was an English architect, landscape architect, painter and furniture designer of the early 18th century. He began his career as a painter, and became Principal Painter in Ordinary or court painter, b ...
designed
Chiswick House Chiswick House is a Neo-Palladian style villa in the Chiswick district of London, England. A "glorious" example of Neo-Palladian architecture in west London, the house was designed and built by Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington (1694–1753 ...
. This house was a reinterpretation of Palladio's Villa Capra "La Rotonda", but purified of 16th-century elements and ornament. This severe lack of ornamentation was to be a feature of Palladianism. In 1734, William Kent and Lord Burlington designed one of England's finest examples of Palladian architecture, Holkham Hall in
Norfolk Norfolk ( ) is a Ceremonial counties of England, ceremonial county in England, located in East Anglia and officially part of the East of England region. It borders Lincolnshire and The Wash to the north-west, the North Sea to the north and eas ...
. The main block of this house followed Palladio's dictates quite closely, but Palladio's low, often detached, wings of farm buildings were elevated in significance. This classicizing vein was also detectable, to a lesser degree, in the Late Baroque architecture in Paris, such as in the Louvre Colonnade. This shift was even visible in Rome at the redesigned façade for
Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran The Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran (officially the ''Major Papal, Patriarchal and Roman Archbasilica, Metropolitan and Primatial Cathedral of the Most Holy Savior and Saints John the Baptist and the Evangelist in Lateran, Mother and Head of A ...
. Stourhead 1.gif, The east façade of Stourhead House, based on Palladio's Villa Emo East facade of Louvre, Paris September 2013.jpg, Louvre Colonnade, Paris, 1667–1674 Russborough-House Part-of-the-facade.jpg, Russborough House, County Wicklow, Ireland. A notable example of Irish Palladianism, 1741–1755, by Richard Cassels Woburn Abbey.jpg,
Woburn Abbey Woburn Abbey (), occupying the east of the village of Woburn, Bedfordshire, England, is a country house, the family seat of the Duke of Bedford. Although it is still a family home to the current duke, it is open on specified days to visitors, ...
, Woburn, Bedfordshire, England, 1746, by Henry Flitcroft Province House (Nova Scotia).jpg, Nova Scotia Legislature Building from
Halifax, Nova Scotia Halifax is the capital and most populous municipality of the Provinces and territories of Canada, Canadian province of Nova Scotia, and the most populous municipality in Atlantic Canada. As of 2024, it is estimated that the population of the H ...
, Canada, 1819


Neoclassicism

By the mid-18th century, the movement broadened to incorporate a greater range of classical influences, including those from
Ancient Greece Ancient Greece () was a northeastern Mediterranean civilization, existing from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of classical antiquity (), that comprised a loose collection of culturally and linguistically r ...
. An early centre of neoclassicism was Italy, especially
Naples Naples ( ; ; ) is the Regions of Italy, regional capital of Campania and the third-largest city of Italy, after Rome and Milan, with a population of 908,082 within the city's administrative limits as of 2025, while its Metropolitan City of N ...
, where by the 1730s court architects such as Luigi Vanvitelli and Ferdinando Fuga were recovering classical, Palladian and
Mannerist Mannerism is a style in European art that emerged in the later years of the Italian High Renaissance around 1520, spreading by about 1530 and lasting until about the end of the 16th century in Italy, when the Baroque style largely replaced it ...
forms in their Baroque architecture. Following their lead, Giovanni Antonio Medrano began to build the first truly neoclassical structures in Italy in the 1730s. In the same period, Alessandro Pompei introduced neoclassicism to the Venetian Republic, building one of the first
lapidarium A lapidarium is a place where stone (Latin: ) monuments and fragments of archaeological interest are exhibited. They can include stone epigraphy, epigraphs; statues; architectural elements such as columns, cornices, and acroterions; bas relief ...
s in Europe in
Verona Verona ( ; ; or ) is a city on the Adige, River Adige in Veneto, Italy, with 255,131 inhabitants. It is one of the seven provincial capitals of the region, and is the largest city Comune, municipality in the region and in Northeast Italy, nor ...
, in the Doric style (1738). During the same period, neoclassical elements were introduced to
Tuscany Tuscany ( ; ) is a Regions of Italy, region in central Italy with an area of about and a population of 3,660,834 inhabitants as of 2025. The capital city is Florence. Tuscany is known for its landscapes, history, artistic legacy, and its in ...
by architect Jean Nicolas Jadot de Ville-Issey, the court architect of Francis Stephen of Lorraine. On Jadot's lead, an original neoclassical style was developed by Gaspare Maria Paoletti, transforming
Florence Florence ( ; ) is the capital city of the Italy, Italian region of Tuscany. It is also the most populated city in Tuscany, with 362,353 inhabitants, and 989,460 in Metropolitan City of Florence, its metropolitan province as of 2025. Florence ...
into the most important centre of neoclassicism in the peninsula. In the second half of the century, Neoclassicism flourished also in
Turin Turin ( , ; ; , then ) is a city and an important business and cultural centre in northern Italy. It is the capital city of Piedmont and of the Metropolitan City of Turin, and was the first Italian capital from 1861 to 1865. The city is main ...
,
Milan Milan ( , , ; ) is a city in northern Italy, regional capital of Lombardy, the largest city in Italy by urban area and the List of cities in Italy, second-most-populous city proper in Italy after Rome. The city proper has a population of nea ...
( Giuseppe Piermarini) and
Trieste Trieste ( , ; ) is a city and seaport in northeastern Italy. It is the capital and largest city of the Regions of Italy#Autonomous regions with special statute, autonomous region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia, as well as of the Province of Trieste, ...
( Matteo Pertsch). In the latter two cities, just as in Tuscany, the sober neoclassical style was linked to the reformism of the ruling Habsburg enlightened monarchs. The shift to neoclassical architecture is conventionally dated to the 1750s. It first gained influence in England and France; in England, Sir William Hamilton's excavations at
Pompeii Pompeii ( ; ) was a city in what is now the municipality of Pompei, near Naples, in the Campania region of Italy. Along with Herculaneum, Stabiae, and Villa Boscoreale, many surrounding villas, the city was buried under of volcanic ash and p ...
and other sites, the influence of the Grand Tour, and the work of William Chambers and
Robert Adam Robert Adam (3 July 17283 March 1792) was a British neoclassical architect, interior designer and furniture designer. He was the son of William Adam (architect), William Adam (1689–1748), Scotland's foremost architect of the time, and train ...
, were pivotal in this regard. In France, the movement was propelled by a generation of French art students trained in Rome, and was influenced by the writings of
Johann Joachim Winckelmann Johann Joachim Winckelmann ( ; ; 9 December 17178 June 1768) was a German art historian and archaeologist. He was a pioneering Hellenism (neoclassicism), Hellenist who first articulated the differences between Ancient Greek art, Greek, Helleni ...
. The style was also adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden and
Russia Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...
. International neoclassical architecture was exemplified in
Karl Friedrich Schinkel Karl Friedrich Schinkel (13 March 1781 – 9 October 1841) was a Prussian architect, urban planning, city planner and painter who also designed furniture and stage sets. Schinkel was one of the most prominent architects of Germany and designed b ...
's buildings, especially the
Altes Museum The Altes Museum (English: ''Old Museum'') is a List of World Heritage Sites in Germany, listed building on the Museum Island in the Mitte (locality), historic centre of Berlin, Germany. Built between 1825 and 1830 by order of King Frederick Will ...
in Berlin, Sir
John Soane Sir John Soane (; né Soan; 10 September 1753 – 20 January 1837) was an English architect who specialised in the Neoclassical architecture, Neo-Classical style. The son of a bricklayer, he rose to the top of his profession, becoming professor ...
's
Bank of England The Bank of England is the central bank of the United Kingdom and the model on which most modern central banks have been based. Established in 1694 to act as the Kingdom of England, English Government's banker and debt manager, and still one ...
in London and the newly built
White House The White House is the official residence and workplace of the president of the United States. Located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue Northwest (Washington, D.C.), NW in Washington, D.C., it has served as the residence of every U.S. president ...
and Capitol in Washington, D.C. of the nascent American Republic. The style was international. The Baltimore Basilica, which was designed by
Benjamin Henry Latrobe Benjamin Henry Boneval Latrobe (May 1, 1764 – September 3, 1820) was a British-American Neoclassical architecture, neoclassical architect who immigrated to the United States. He was one of the first formally trained, professional architects in ...
in 1806, is considered one of the finest examples of neoclassical architecture in the world. A second neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the height of the
First French Empire The First French Empire or French Empire (; ), also known as Napoleonic France, was the empire ruled by Napoleon Bonaparte, who established French hegemony over much of continental Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. It lasted from ...
. In France, the first phase of neoclassicism was expressed in the Louis XVI style, and the second in the styles called Directoire and
Empire An empire is a political unit made up of several territories, military outpost (military), outposts, and peoples, "usually created by conquest, and divided between a hegemony, dominant center and subordinate peripheries". The center of the ...
. Its major proponents were Percier and Fontaine, court architects who specialized in interior decoration. In the decorative arts, neoclassicism is exemplified in French furniture of the Empire style; the English furniture of Chippendale, George Hepplewhite and
Robert Adam Robert Adam (3 July 17283 March 1792) was a British neoclassical architect, interior designer and furniture designer. He was the son of William Adam (architect), William Adam (1689–1748), Scotland's foremost architect of the time, and train ...
, Wedgwood's bas reliefs and "black basaltes" vases, and the Biedermeier furniture of Austria. The Scottish architect Charles Cameron created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-born
Catherine the Great Catherine II. (born Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst; 2 May 172917 November 1796), most commonly known as Catherine the Great, was the reigning empress of Russia from 1762 to 1796. She came to power after overthrowing her husband, Peter I ...
in
Saint Petersburg Saint Petersburg, formerly known as Petrograd and later Leningrad, is the List of cities and towns in Russia by population, second-largest city in Russia after Moscow. It is situated on the Neva, River Neva, at the head of the Gulf of Finland ...
. File:Temple de l'Oratoire, 1855.jpg, Oratire du Louvre façade (1855) File:Pantheon 1, Paris May 11, 2013.jpg, The
Panthéon The Panthéon (, ), is a monument in the 5th arrondissement of Paris, France. It stands in the Latin Quarter, Paris, Latin Quarter (Quartier latin), atop the , in the centre of the , which was named after it. The edifice was built between 1758 ...
, Paris, 1758–1790 FIle:GrandTheatreBordeaux2.jpg, The Grand Theater, Bordeaux, by Victor Louis, 1773-1780 File:University of Virginia Rotunda in 2006.jpg, The Rotunda (University of Virginia), Charlottesville, Virginia, by
Thomas Jefferson Thomas Jefferson (, 1743July 4, 1826) was an American Founding Fathers of the United States, Founding Father and the third president of the United States from 1801 to 1809. He was the primary author of the United States Declaration of Indepe ...
and Stanford White, 1826 File:Akademie von Athen.jpg, The Academy of Athens, 1859, by Theophil Hansen File:National Museum, side view left (Padre burgos, Manila; 01-30-2021).jpg, Old Legislative Building (Manila), Philippines, 1918 and rebuilt in 1945 File:Oudenbosch Basiliek H. Agatha en H. Barbara 1.jpg, Oudenbosch Basilica, 1892 ( Oudenbosch, The Netherlands) File:Concertgebouw from Museumplein 2539.jpg, Concertgebouw, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1886 File:Front side of Soestdijk Palace.jpg, Soestdijk Palace, The Netherlands, more times Renovated File:Close Front of Tajhat Palace, Rangpur, 03-09-2016 01.jpg, Tajhat Palace, late 19th century ( Rangpur, Bangladesh) File:Ripon Building panorama.jpg, Ripon Building, 1909 (
Chennai Chennai, also known as Madras (List of renamed places in India#Tamil Nadu, its official name until 1996), is the capital city, capital and List of cities in Tamil Nadu by population, largest city of Tamil Nadu, the southernmost states and ...
, India)


Interior design

Indoors, neoclassicism made a discovery of the genuine classic interior, inspired by the rediscoveries at
Pompeii Pompeii ( ; ) was a city in what is now the municipality of Pompei, near Naples, in the Campania region of Italy. Along with Herculaneum, Stabiae, and Villa Boscoreale, many surrounding villas, the city was buried under of volcanic ash and p ...
and
Herculaneum Herculaneum is an ancient Rome, ancient Roman town located in the modern-day ''comune'' of Ercolano, Campania, Italy. Herculaneum was buried under a massive pyroclastic flow in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. Like the nearby city of ...
. These had begun in the late 1740s, but only achieved a wide audience in the 1760s, with the first luxurious volumes of tightly controlled distribution of '' Le Antichità di Ercolano Esposte'' (''The Antiquities of Herculaneum Exposed''). The antiquities of Herculaneum showed that even the most classicizing interiors of the
Baroque The Baroque ( , , ) is a Western Style (visual arts), style of Baroque architecture, architecture, Baroque music, music, Baroque dance, dance, Baroque painting, painting, Baroque sculpture, sculpture, poetry, and other arts that flourished from ...
, or the most "Roman" rooms of
William Kent William Kent (c. 1685 – 12 April 1748) was an English architect, landscape architect, painter and furniture designer of the early 18th century. He began his career as a painter, and became Principal Painter in Ordinary or court painter, b ...
were based on
basilica In Ancient Roman architecture, a basilica (Greek Basiliké) was a large public building with multiple functions that was typically built alongside the town's forum. The basilica was in the Latin West equivalent to a stoa in the Greek Eas ...
and
temple A temple (from the Latin ) is a place of worship, a building used for spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. By convention, the specially built places of worship of some religions are commonly called "temples" in Engli ...
exterior architecture turned outside in, hence their often bombastic appearance to modern eyes:
pediment Pediments are a form of gable in classical architecture, usually of a triangular shape. Pediments are placed above the horizontal structure of the cornice (an elaborated lintel), or entablature if supported by columns.Summerson, 130 In an ...
ed window frames turned into gilded mirrors, fireplaces topped with temple fronts. The new interiors sought to recreate an authentically Roman and genuinely interior vocabulary. Techniques employed in the style included flatter, lighter motifs, sculpted in low
frieze In classical architecture, the frieze is the wide central section of an entablature and may be plain in the Ionic order, Ionic or Corinthian order, Corinthian orders, or decorated with bas-reliefs. Patera (architecture), Paterae are also ...
-like relief or painted in monotones '' en camaïeu'' ("like cameos"), isolated medallions or vases or busts or bucrania or other motifs, suspended on swags of laurel or ribbon, with slender arabesques against backgrounds, perhaps, of "Pompeiian red" or pale tints, or stone colours. The style in France was initially a Parisian style, the '' goût grec'' ("Greek taste"), not a court style; when
Louis XVI Louis XVI (Louis-Auguste; ; 23 August 1754 – 21 January 1793) was the last king of France before the fall of the monarchy during the French Revolution. The son of Louis, Dauphin of France (1729–1765), Louis, Dauphin of France (son and heir- ...
acceded to the throne in 1774,
Marie Antoinette Marie Antoinette (; ; Maria Antonia Josefa Johanna; 2 November 1755 – 16 October 1793) was the last List of French royal consorts, queen of France before the French Revolution and the establishment of the French First Republic. She was the ...
, his fashion-loving Queen, brought the Louis XVI style to court. However, there was no real attempt to employ the basic forms of Roman furniture until around the turn of the century, and furniture-makers were more likely to borrow from ancient architecture, just as silversmiths were more likely to take from ancient pottery and stone-carving than metalwork: "Designers and craftsmen ..seem to have taken an almost perverse pleasure in transferring motifs from one medium to another". A new phase in neoclassical design was inaugurated by Robert and James Adam, who travelled in Italy and Dalmatia in the 1750s, observing the ruins of the classical world. On their return to Britain, they published a book entitled ''The Works in Architecture'' in installments between 1773 and 1779. This book of engraved designs made the Adam style available throughout Europe. The Adam brothers aimed to simplify the
Rococo Rococo, less commonly Roccoco ( , ; or ), also known as Late Baroque, is an exceptionally ornamental and dramatic style of architecture, art and decoration which combines asymmetry, scrolling curves, gilding, white and pastel colours, sculpte ...
and
Baroque The Baroque ( , , ) is a Western Style (visual arts), style of Baroque architecture, architecture, Baroque music, music, Baroque dance, dance, Baroque painting, painting, Baroque sculpture, sculpture, poetry, and other arts that flourished from ...
styles which had been fashionable in the preceding decades, to bring what they felt to be a lighter and more elegant feel to Georgian houses. ''The Works in Architecture'' illustrated the main buildings the Adam brothers had worked on and crucially documented the interiors, furniture and fittings, designed by the Adams. File:Agaterooms.jpg, The Agate Pavilion, Tsarskoye Selo, designed by Charles Cameron in "Pompeian" style File:Compiègne (60), palais, salon Bleu 3.jpg, The Blue Salon of the
Château de Compiègne The Château de Compiègne is a French château, a former royal residence built for Louis XV and later restored by Napoleon. Compiègne was one of three seats of royal government, the others being Versailles and Fontainebleau. It is located i ...
(
Compiègne Compiègne (; ) is a Communes of France, commune in the Oise Departments of France, department of northern France. It is located on the river Oise (river), Oise, and its inhabitants are called ''Compiégnois'' (). Administration Compiègne is t ...
, France), an example of an
Empire An empire is a political unit made up of several territories, military outpost (military), outposts, and peoples, "usually created by conquest, and divided between a hegemony, dominant center and subordinate peripheries". The center of the ...
interior File:Vaults of the Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile (10047443365).jpg, Detail of the ceiling of the
Arc de Triomphe The Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile, often called simply the Arc de Triomphe, is one of the most famous monuments in Paris, France, standing at the western end of the Champs-Élysées at the centre of Place Charles de Gaulle, formerly named Plac ...
from Paris File:Design for a Room in the Etruscan or Pompeian style (Elevation) MET DP804393.jpg, Design for a room in the Etruscan or Pompeian style, from 1833, in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art The Metropolitan Museum of Art, colloquially referred to as the Met, is an Encyclopedic museum, encyclopedic art museum in New York City. By floor area, it is the List of largest museums, third-largest museum in the world and the List of larg ...
(New York City) File:Berlin Hotel Kaiserhof Speisesaal AS.jpg, Dining room of the Centralhotel (Berlin), designed in 1881 by Hermann von der Hude & Julius Hennicke File:Salle de lecture Bibliothèque Mazarine depuis gallerie.jpg, The Reading Room of the , Paris


Greek Revival

From about 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural examples, seen through the medium of etchings and engravings, gave a new impetus to neoclassicism, the Greek Revival. There was little direct knowledge of surviving Greek buildings before the middle of the 18th century in
Western Europe Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's extent varies depending on context. The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and originally applied to the Western half of the ancient Mediterranean ...
, when an expedition funded by the Society of Dilettanti in 1751 and led by James Stuart and Nicholas Revett began serious archaeological enquiry. Stuart was commissioned after his return from Greece by George Lyttelton to produce the first Greek building in England, the garden temple at
Hagley Hall Hagley Hall is a Listed building#Categories of listed building, Grade I listed 18th-century house in Hagley, Worcestershire, the home of the Lyttelton family. It was the creation of George Lyttelton, 1st Baron Lyttelton, George, 1st Lord Lytte ...
(1758–59). A number of British architects in the second half of the century took up the expressive challenge of the Doric from their aristocratic patrons, including Joseph Bonomi the Elder and
John Soane Sir John Soane (; né Soan; 10 September 1753 – 20 January 1837) was an English architect who specialised in the Neoclassical architecture, Neo-Classical style. The son of a bricklayer, he rose to the top of his profession, becoming professor ...
, but it was to remain the private enthusiasm of connoisseurs up to the first decade of the 19th century. Seen in its wider social context, Greek Revival architecture sounded a new note of sobriety and restraint in public buildings in Britain around 1800 as an assertion of
nationalism Nationalism is an idea or movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, it presupposes the existence and tends to promote the interests of a particular nation, Smith, Anthony. ''Nationalism: Theory, I ...
attendant on the Act of Union, the
Napoleonic Wars {{Infobox military conflict , conflict = Napoleonic Wars , partof = the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars , image = Napoleonic Wars (revision).jpg , caption = Left to right, top to bottom:Battl ...
, and the clamour for political reform. It was to be William Wilkins's winning design for the public competition for Downing College, Cambridge, that announced the Greek style was to be the dominant idiom in architecture. Wilkins and Robert Smirke went on to build some of the most important buildings of the era, including the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden (1808–1809), the General Post Office (1824–1829) and the
British Museum The British Museum is a Museum, public museum dedicated to human history, art and culture located in the Bloomsbury area of London. Its permanent collection of eight million works is the largest in the world. It documents the story of human cu ...
(1823–1848), Wilkins
University College London University College London (Trade name, branded as UCL) is a Public university, public research university in London, England. It is a Member institutions of the University of London, member institution of the Federal university, federal Uni ...
(1826–1830) and the
National Gallery The National Gallery is an art museum in Trafalgar Square in the City of Westminster, in Central London, England. Founded in 1824, it houses a collection of more than 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900. The current di ...
(1832–1838). In Scotland, Thomas Hamilton (1784–1858), in collaboration with the artists Andrew Wilson (1780–1848) and Hugh William Williams (1773–1829) created monuments and buildings of international significance; the Burns Monument at Alloway (1818) and the Royal High School, Edinburgh (1823–1829). At the same time the
Empire style The Empire style (, ''style Empire'') is an early-nineteenth-century design movement in architecture, furniture, other decorative arts, and the visual arts, representing the second phase of Neoclassicism. It flourished between 1800 and 1815 duri ...
in France was a more grandiose wave of neoclassicism in architecture and the decorative arts. Mainly based on Imperial Roman styles, it originated in, and took its name from, the rule of
Napoleon I Napoleon Bonaparte (born Napoleone di Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French general and statesman who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led Military career ...
in the
First French Empire The First French Empire or French Empire (; ), also known as Napoleonic France, was the empire ruled by Napoleon Bonaparte, who established French hegemony over much of continental Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. It lasted from ...
, where it was intended to idealize Napoleon's leadership and the French state. The style corresponds to the more bourgeois Biedermeier style in the German-speaking lands, Federal style in the United States, the Regency style in Britain, and the ''Napoleonstil'' in Sweden. According to the art historian Hugh Honour "so far from being, as is sometimes supposed, the culmination of the Neo-classical movement, the Empire marks its rapid decline and transformation back once more into a mere antique revival, drained of all the high-minded ideas and force of conviction that had inspired its masterpieces". File:1044. St. Petersburg. Stock Exchange building.jpg, Old Saint Petersburg Stock Exchange, by Jean-François Thomas de Thomon, 1805-1810 File:British Museum from NE 2 (cropped).JPG,
British Museum The British Museum is a Museum, public museum dedicated to human history, art and culture located in the Bloomsbury area of London. Its permanent collection of eight million works is the largest in the world. It documents the story of human cu ...
, London, by Robert Smirke, 1823-1847 File:Palais de Justice BORDEAUX.JPG, Bordeaux Courthouse,
Bordeaux Bordeaux ( ; ; Gascon language, Gascon ; ) is a city on the river Garonne in the Gironde Departments of France, department, southwestern France. A port city, it is the capital of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region, as well as the Prefectures in F ...
, France, unknown architect, 1839-1846 File:Edinburgh - Royal Scottish Academy Building - 20140421192731.jpg,
Royal Scottish Academy The Royal Scottish Academy (RSA) is the country's national academy of art. It promotes contemporary art, contemporary Scottish art. The Academy was founded in 1826 by eleven artists meeting in Edinburgh. Originally named the Scottish Academy ...
, Edinburgh, Scotland, unknown architect, unknown date File:München BW 2017-03-15 19-06-19.jpg, Propylaea (Munich), Germany, by Leo von Klenze, finished in 1862 Austria reichsratssaal 2010.jpg,
Austrian Parliament Building The Austrian Parliament Building (, colloquially ''das Parlament'') in Vienna is the meeting place of the two houses of the Austrian Parliament. The building is located on the in the first district, ''Innere Stadt'', near Hofburg Palace and t ...
, Vienna, by Theophil Hansen, 1874–1883 File:Friedrich-von-Thiersch-Saal Bühne.jpg, Friedrich-von-Thiersch hall of the Kurhaus, Wiesbaden, Germany, 1905–1907, by Friedrich von Thiersch


Characteristics

High neoclassicism was an international movement. Architects reacted against the excesses and profuse ornament used in Late
Baroque architecture Baroque architecture is a highly decorative and theatrical style which appeared in Italy in the late 16th century and gradually spread across Europe. It was originally introduced by the Catholic Church, particularly by the Jesuits, as a means to ...
. The new "classical" architecture emphasized planar qualities, rather than elaborate sculptural ornament in both the interior and the exterior. Projections and recessions and their effects of light and shade were more flat; sculptural bas-reliefs were flat and tended to be framed by friezes, tablets or panels. This was the first "stripped down" classical architecture, and appeared to be modern in the context of the Revolutionary period in Europe. At its most elemental, as in the work of Etienne-Louis Boullée, it was highly abstract and geometrically pure. Neoclassicism also influenced city planning. The ancient Romans had used a consolidated scheme for city planning for both defence and civil convenience; however, the roots of this scheme go back to even older civilizations. At its most basic, the grid system of streets, a central forum with city services, two main slightly wider boulevards, and the occasional diagonal street were characteristic of the very logical and orderly Roman design. Ancient façades and building layouts were oriented to these city design patterns and they tended to work in proportion with the importance of public buildings. Many of these
urban planning Urban planning (also called city planning in some contexts) is the process of developing and designing land use and the built environment, including air, water, and the infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas, such as transportatio ...
patterns found their way into the first modern planned cities of the 18th century. Exceptional examples include
Karlsruhe Karlsruhe ( ; ; ; South Franconian German, South Franconian: ''Kallsruh'') is the List of cities in Baden-Württemberg by population, third-largest city of the States of Germany, German state of Baden-Württemberg, after its capital Stuttgart a ...
, Washington, D.C., Saint Petersburg, Buenos Aires, Havana, and Barcelona. Contrasting models may be found in Modernist designs exemplified by
Brasília Brasília ( ; ) is the capital city, capital of Brazil and Federal District (Brazil), Federal District. Located in the Brazilian highlands in the country's Central-West Region, Brazil, Central-West region, it was founded by President Juscelino ...
, the
Garden city movement The garden city movement was a 20th century urban planning movement promoting satellite communities surrounding the central city and separated with Green belt, greenbelts. These Garden Cities would contain proportionate areas of residences, i ...
, and levittowns.


Regional trends


France

The first phase of neoclassicism in France is expressed in the Louis XV style of architect Ange-Jacques Gabriel (
Petit Trianon The Petit Trianon (; French for 'small Trianon') is a Neoclassical architecture, Neoclassical style château located on the grounds of the Palace of Versailles in Versailles, Yvelines, Versailles, France. It was built between 1762 and 1768 ...
, 1762–1768); the second phase, in the styles called Directoire and
Empire An empire is a political unit made up of several territories, military outpost (military), outposts, and peoples, "usually created by conquest, and divided between a hegemony, dominant center and subordinate peripheries". The center of the ...
, might be characterized by Jean Chalgrin's severe astylar
Arc de Triomphe The Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile, often called simply the Arc de Triomphe, is one of the most famous monuments in Paris, France, standing at the western end of the Champs-Élysées at the centre of Place Charles de Gaulle, formerly named Plac ...
(designed in 1806). In England the two phases might be characterized first by the structures of
Robert Adam Robert Adam (3 July 17283 March 1792) was a British neoclassical architect, interior designer and furniture designer. He was the son of William Adam (architect), William Adam (1689–1748), Scotland's foremost architect of the time, and train ...
, the second by those of Sir
John Soane Sir John Soane (; né Soan; 10 September 1753 – 20 January 1837) was an English architect who specialised in the Neoclassical architecture, Neo-Classical style. The son of a bricklayer, he rose to the top of his profession, becoming professor ...
. The interior style in France was initially a Parisian style, the " Goût grec" ("Greek style") not a court style. Only when the young King
Louis XVI Louis XVI (Louis-Auguste; ; 23 August 1754 – 21 January 1793) was the last king of France before the fall of the monarchy during the French Revolution. The son of Louis, Dauphin of France (1729–1765), Louis, Dauphin of France (son and heir- ...
acceded to the throne in 1774 did
Marie Antoinette Marie Antoinette (; ; Maria Antonia Josefa Johanna; 2 November 1755 – 16 October 1793) was the last List of French royal consorts, queen of France before the French Revolution and the establishment of the French First Republic. She was the ...
, his fashion-loving Queen, bring the Louis XVI style to court. Many early 19th-century neoclassical architects were influenced by the drawings and projects of Étienne-Louis Boullée and Claude Nicolas Ledoux. The many graphite drawings of Boullée and his students depict spare geometrical architecture that emulates the eternality of the universe. There are links between Boullée's ideas and
Edmund Burke Edmund Burke (; 12 January ew Style, NS1729 – 9 July 1797) was an Anglo-Irish Politician, statesman, journalist, writer, literary critic, philosopher, and parliamentary orator who is regarded as the founder of the Social philosophy, soc ...
's conception of the sublime. Ledoux addressed the concept of architectural character, maintaining that a building should immediately communicate its function to the viewer: taken literally, such ideas give rise to architecture parlante ("speaking architecture"). From about 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural examples, seen through the medium of etchings and engravings, gave a new impetus to neoclassicism that is called the Greek Revival. Although several European cities – notably
Saint Petersburg Saint Petersburg, formerly known as Petrograd and later Leningrad, is the List of cities and towns in Russia by population, second-largest city in Russia after Moscow. It is situated on the Neva, River Neva, at the head of the Gulf of Finland ...
,
Athens Athens ( ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Greece, largest city of Greece. A significant coastal urban area in the Mediterranean, Athens is also the capital of the Attica (region), Attica region and is the southe ...
, Berlin and
Munich Munich is the capital and most populous city of Bavaria, Germany. As of 30 November 2024, its population was 1,604,384, making it the third-largest city in Germany after Berlin and Hamburg. Munich is the largest city in Germany that is no ...
– were transformed into veritable museums of Greek revival architecture, the Greek Revival in France was never popular with either the state or the public. Boudoir de la reine, Château de Fontainebleau.jpg, Boudoir de la Reine of the
Palace of Fontainebleau Palace of Fontainebleau ( , ; ), located southeast of the center of Paris, in the commune of Fontainebleau, is one of the largest French royal châteaux. It served as a hunting lodge and summer residence for many of the List of French monarchs ...
( Fontainbleau) Château de Bagatelle, Paris 17 July 2016 004.jpg, Château de Bagatelle (Paris), a small Neoclassical
château A château (, ; plural: châteaux) is a manor house, or palace, or residence of the lord of the manor, or a fine country house of nobility or gentry, with or without fortifications, originally, and still most frequently, in French-speaking re ...
, 1777, by François-Joseph Bélanger Bordeaux Grand Théâtre R03.jpg, Stairway of the Grand Theater of Bordeaux, 1780, by Victor Louis Hôtel de Salm côté Seine Palais Légion d'Honneur Paris.jpg, The Palais de la Légion d'Honneur (Paris), 1782–1787, by Pierre Rousseau Cabinet dore Marie-Antoinette Versailles.jpg, Cabinet doré of
Marie Antoinette Marie Antoinette (; ; Maria Antonia Josefa Johanna; 2 November 1755 – 16 October 1793) was the last List of French royal consorts, queen of France before the French Revolution and the establishment of the French First Republic. She was the ...
at the
Palace of Versailles The Palace of Versailles ( ; ) is a former royal residence commissioned by King Louis XIV located in Versailles, Yvelines, Versailles, about west of Paris, in the Yvelines, Yvelines Department of Île-de-France, Île-de-France region in Franc ...
(1783) Église de la Madeleine 3753x3156.jpg, Église de la Madeleine (
Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...
), 1807–1828, by Pierre-Alexandre Vignon File:Compiègne (60), palais, salon Bleu 3.jpg, The Blue Salon of the
Château de Compiègne The Château de Compiègne is a French château, a former royal residence built for Louis XV and later restored by Napoleon. Compiègne was one of three seats of royal government, the others being Versailles and Fontainebleau. It is located i ...
(
Compiègne Compiègne (; ) is a Communes of France, commune in the Oise Departments of France, department of northern France. It is located on the river Oise (river), Oise, and its inhabitants are called ''Compiégnois'' (). Administration Compiègne is t ...
), an example of an
Empire An empire is a political unit made up of several territories, military outpost (military), outposts, and peoples, "usually created by conquest, and divided between a hegemony, dominant center and subordinate peripheries". The center of the ...
interior Château de Malmaison, France (48029730202).jpg, Empress's bedroom from the Château de Malmaison, another Empire interior P1040409 Paris Ier colonne Vendôme rwk.JPG, The Vendôme Column (Paris), modelled after Trajan's Column, 1810 Musee Guimet en 2013 1.jpg, The
Guimet Museum The Guimet Museum (full name in ; ''MNAAG''; ) is a Parisian art museum with one of the largest collections of Asian art outside of Asia that includes items from Cambodia, Thailand, Viet Nam, Tibet, India, and Nepal, among other countries. Found ...
(Paris), by Jules Chatron


Germany

Neoclassical architecture became a symbol of national pride during the 18th century in Germany, in what was then
Prussia Prussia (; ; Old Prussian: ''Prūsija'') was a Germans, German state centred on the North European Plain that originated from the 1525 secularization of the Prussia (region), Prussian part of the State of the Teutonic Order. For centuries, ...
.
Karl Friedrich Schinkel Karl Friedrich Schinkel (13 March 1781 – 9 October 1841) was a Prussian architect, urban planning, city planner and painter who also designed furniture and stage sets. Schinkel was one of the most prominent architects of Germany and designed b ...
built many notable buildings in this style, including the
Altes Museum The Altes Museum (English: ''Old Museum'') is a List of World Heritage Sites in Germany, listed building on the Museum Island in the Mitte (locality), historic centre of Berlin, Germany. Built between 1825 and 1830 by order of King Frederick Will ...
in Berlin. While the city remained dominated by Baroque city planning, his architecture and functional style provided the city with a distinctly neoclassical center. Schinkel's work is very comparable to Neoclassical architecture in Britain since he drew much of his inspiration from that country. He made trips to observe the buildings and develop his functional style. File:Berlin - 0266 - 16052015 - Brandenburger Tor.jpg,
Brandenburg Gate The Brandenburg Gate ( ) is an 18th-century Neoclassical architecture, neoclassical monument in Berlin. One of the best-known landmarks of Germany, it was erected on the site of a former city gate that marked the start of the road from Berlin t ...
in Berlin (1788–1791) by
Carl Gotthard Langhans Carl Gotthard Langhans (15 December 1732 – 1 October 1808) was a Prussian master builder and royal architect. His churches, palaces, grand houses, interiors, city gates and theatres in Silesia (now Poland), Berlin, Potsdam and elsewhere belo ...
File:Marktplatz Karlsruhe 20220705 145159-2.jpg, Karlsruhe Pyramid (1823–1825) and City Church (1807–1816),
Karlsruhe Karlsruhe ( ; ; ; South Franconian German, South Franconian: ''Kallsruh'') is the List of cities in Baden-Württemberg by population, third-largest city of the States of Germany, German state of Baden-Württemberg, after its capital Stuttgart a ...
by Friedrich Weinbrenner File:150418 Konzerthaus Berlin Gendarmenmarkt.jpg, Konzerthaus Berlin in Berlin (1818–1821) by
Karl Friedrich Schinkel Karl Friedrich Schinkel (13 March 1781 – 9 October 1841) was a Prussian architect, urban planning, city planner and painter who also designed furniture and stage sets. Schinkel was one of the most prominent architects of Germany and designed b ...
File:Exterior views of the Altes Museum Berlin.jpg,
Altes Museum The Altes Museum (English: ''Old Museum'') is a List of World Heritage Sites in Germany, listed building on the Museum Island in the Mitte (locality), historic centre of Berlin, Germany. Built between 1825 and 1830 by order of King Frederick Will ...
in Berlin (1825–1830) by Karl Friedrich Schinkel File:Glyptothek in München in 2013.jpg,
Glyptothek The Glyptothek () is a museum in Munich, Germany, which was commissioned by the Bavarian King Ludwig I of Bavaria, Ludwig I to house his collection of Ancient Greek art, Greek and Roman art, Roman sculptures (hence γλυπτο- ''glypto-'' "sculp ...
in Munich (1816–1830) by Leo von Klenze File:Walhalla wie Parthenon zu Ehren bedeutender Personen - erbaut 1842 - König Ludwig I - Foto Wolfgang Pehlemann DSCN2430.jpg, Walhalla (1830–1842) by Leo von Klenze File:Propyläen München.jpg, Propylaea (Munich) (1854–1862) by Leo von Klenze File:AlteNationalgalerie 1a.jpg, Alte Nationalgalerie in Berlin (1862–1876) by Friedrich August Stüler and Heinrich Strack


Great Britain and Ireland

From the middle of the 18th century, exploration and publication changed the course of British architecture from the Palladian architecture towards a purer vision of the Ancient Greco-Roman ideal. James 'Athenian' Stuart's work ''The Antiquities of Athens and Other Monuments of Greece'' was very influential in this regard, as were Robert Wood's ''Palmyra'' and ''Baalbec''. A combination of simple forms and high levels of enrichment was adopted by the majority of contemporary British architects and designers. The revolution begun by Stuart was soon to be eclipsed by the work of the Adam brothers, James Wyatt, Sir William Chambers, George Dance the Younger, James Gandon, and provincially based architects such as John Carr and Thomas Harrison of
Chester Chester is a cathedral city in Cheshire, England, on the River Dee, Wales, River Dee, close to the England–Wales border. With a built-up area population of 92,760 in 2021, it is the most populous settlement in the borough of Cheshire West an ...
. In
Scotland Scotland is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It contains nearly one-third of the United Kingdom's land area, consisting of the northern part of the island of Great Britain and more than 790 adjac ...
and the north of England, where the
Gothic Revival Gothic Revival (also referred to as Victorian Gothic or neo-Gothic) is an Architectural style, architectural movement that after a gradual build-up beginning in the second half of the 17th century became a widespread movement in the first half ...
was less strong, architects continued to develop the neoclassical style of
William Henry Playfair William Henry Playfair Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, FRSE (15 July 1790 – 19 March 1857) was a prominent Scottish architect in the 19th century who designed the Eastern, or Third, New Town, Edinburgh, New Town and many of Edinb ...
. The works of Cuthbert Brodrick and Alexander Thomson show that by the end of the 19th century the results could be powerful and eccentric. In
Ireland Ireland (, ; ; Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean, in Northwestern Europe. Geopolitically, the island is divided between the Republic of Ireland (officially Names of the Irish state, named Irelan ...
, where
Gothic Revival Gothic Revival (also referred to as Victorian Gothic or neo-Gothic) is an Architectural style, architectural movement that after a gradual build-up beginning in the second half of the 17th century became a widespread movement in the first half ...
was also less popular, a refined, restrained form of the neoclassical developed, and can be seen in the works of James Gandon and other architects working at the time. It is particularly evident in
Dublin Dublin is the capital and largest city of Republic of Ireland, Ireland. Situated on Dublin Bay at the mouth of the River Liffey, it is in the Provinces of Ireland, province of Leinster, and is bordered on the south by the Dublin Mountains, pa ...
, which is a largely neoclassical and Georgian city. File:The.circus.bath.arp.jpg, The Circus, Bath, Somerset, England, 1754–1768, by John Wood, the Elder File:Harewood House The State Bedroom.jpg, Bedroom in Harewood House, Harewood, West Yorkshire, England, 1759–1771, by
Robert Adam Robert Adam (3 July 17283 March 1792) was a British neoclassical architect, interior designer and furniture designer. He was the son of William Adam (architect), William Adam (1689–1748), Scotland's foremost architect of the time, and train ...
File:Kedleston Hall 20080730-06.jpg,
Kedleston Hall Kedleston Hall is a neo-classical manor house owned by the National Trust, and seat of the :Curzon family, Curzon family, located near Kedleston in Derbyshire, England, approximately 4 miles (6 km) north-west of Derby. The medieval village ...
, Kedleston, Derbyshire, England based on the Arch of Constantine in Rome, the 1760s, by Robert Adam File:Syon House, Ante room, Gilded panels (2).jpg, Interior of Syon House, London with Ionic columns and gilded statues, 1767–1775, by Robert Adam File:Syon House, Dining room.jpg, Dining room of Syon House, with a complex ceiling File:Archives Nationales Édimbourg 2.jpg, General Register House, Edinburgh, Scotland, 1774–1788, by Robert Adam File:O'Connell Street, Dublin, Ireland.jpg, alt=View upwards of street buildings with green domed roofs, Buildings in Lower O'Connell Street, Dublin constructed between 1918 and 1923 in the highly refined and aesthetically restrained style typical of the Irish capital File:Somerset House.jpg, The central courtyard of
Somerset House Somerset House is a large neoclassical architecture, neoclassical building complex situated on the south side of the Strand, London, Strand in central London, overlooking the River Thames, just east of Waterloo Bridge. The Georgian era quadran ...
, London, 1776, by Sir William Chambers File:Chiswick - Obelisk & Ionic Temple (15298918976).jpg, Ionic Temple at
Chiswick House Chiswick House is a Neo-Palladian style villa in the Chiswick district of London, England. A "glorious" example of Neo-Palladian architecture in west London, the house was designed and built by Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington (1694–1753 ...
, London, an example of
English landscape garden The English landscape garden, also called English landscape park or simply the English garden (, , , , ), is a style of "landscape" garden which emerged in England in the early 18th century, and spread across Europe, replacing the more formal ...
File:Dublin - General Post Office - 20181206094732.jpg, Greek hexastyle portico of the General Post Office, Dublin completed in 1818 File:CustomHouseDublin.JPG, The Custom House, Dublin File:Parliament Buildings Stormont 2.jpg, Parliament Buildings (Northern Ireland) (1933)


Greece

After the establishment of the
Kingdom of Greece The Kingdom of Greece (, Romanization, romanized: ''Vasíleion tis Elládos'', pronounced ) was the Greece, Greek Nation state, nation-state established in 1832 and was the successor state to the First Hellenic Republic. It was internationally ...
in 1832, the architecture of Greece was mostly influenced by the Neoclassical architecture. For Athens, the first King of Greece, Otto I, commissioned the architects Stamatios Kleanthis and Eduard Schaubert to design a modern city plan. The
Old Royal Palace The Old Royal Palace ( ''Palaiá Anáktora'') is the first royal palace of modern Greece. It is neoclassical building situated at the heart of modern Athens, facing onto Syntagma Square. It was constructed between 1836 and 1843 to serve as th ...
was the first important public building to be built, between 1836 and 1843. Later, in the mid- and late 19th century, Theophil Hansen and Ernst Ziller took part in the construction of many neoclassical buildings. Theophil Hansen designed his first building, the
National Observatory of Athens The National Observatory of Athens (NOA; ) is a research institute in Athens, Greece. Founded in 1842, it is the oldest List of research institutes in Greece, research foundation in Greece. The Observatory was the first scientific research insti ...
, and two of the three contiguous buildings forming the so-called "Athens Classical Trilogy", namely the Academy of Athens (1859) and the National Library of Greece (1888), the third building of the trilogy being the National and Capodistrian University of Athens (1843), which was designed by his brother Christian Hansen. Also he designed the Zappeion Hall (1888). Ernst Ziller also designed many private mansions in the centre of Athens which gradually became public, usually through donations, such the mansion of
Heinrich Schliemann Johann Ludwig Heinrich Julius Schliemann (; 6 January 1822 – 26 December 1890) was a German businessman and an influential amateur archaeologist. He was an advocate of the historicity of places mentioned in the works of Homer and an archaeolo ...
, Iliou Melathron (1880). The city of Nauplio is also an important example of Neoclassical architecture along with the islands of Poros and
Syros Syros ( ), also known as Siros or Syra, is a Greece, Greek island in the Cyclades, in the Aegean Sea. It is south-east of Athens. The area of the island is and at the 2021 census it had 21,124 inhabitants. The largest towns are Ermoupoli, Ano S ...
(especially in the capital
Ermoupoli Ermoupoli (), also known by the formal older name Ermoupolis or Hermoupolis ( < "Town of Hermes"), is a town and former Communities and Municipalities of Greece, municipality on the island of Syros, in the Cyclades, Greece. Since the 2011 loca ...
). File:Griechisches Parlament.jpg, The
Old Royal Palace The Old Royal Palace ( ''Palaiá Anáktora'') is the first royal palace of modern Greece. It is neoclassical building situated at the heart of modern Athens, facing onto Syntagma Square. It was constructed between 1836 and 1843 to serve as th ...
, completed in 1843 File:Griechische Nationalbibliothek (Zuschnitt).jpg, National Library of Greece designed by Theophil Hansen (1888) File:Akademie von Athen.jpg, The main building of the Academy of Athens, one of Theophil Hansen's "Trilogy" in central Athens (1859) File:Universität von Athen.jpg, National and Capodistrian University of Athens (1843) File:Attica 06-13 Athens 27 Zappeion.jpg, Zappeion (1888) File:Ιλίου Μέλαθρον 6649.jpg, Numismatic Museum of Athens or Iliou Melathron built for
Heinrich Schliemann Johann Ludwig Heinrich Julius Schliemann (; 6 January 1822 – 26 December 1890) was a German businessman and an influential amateur archaeologist. He was an advocate of the historicity of places mentioned in the works of Homer and an archaeolo ...
by Ernst Ziller (1880) File:Presidential Mansion in Athens.jpg, Presidential Mansion, Athens (formerly the Crown Prince's Palace) built by Ernst Ziller


Hungary

The earliest examples of neoclassical architecture in Hungary may be found in Vác. In this town the triumphal arch and the neoclassical façade of the Baroque Cathedral were designed by the French architect Isidor Marcellus Amandus Ganneval (Isidore Canevale) in the 1760s. Also the work of a French architect, Jean-Charles-Alexandre Moreau, is the garden façade of the Esterházy Palace (1797–1805) in Kismarton (today
Eisenstadt Eisenstadt (; ; ; or ; ) is the capital city of the Provinces of Austria, Austrian state of Burgenland. With a population of 15,074 (as of 2023), it is the smallest state capital and the 38th-largest city in Austria overall. It lies at the foot o ...
in Austria). The two principal architects of Neoclassicism in Hungary were Mihály Pollack and József Hild. Pollack's major work is the Hungarian National Museum (1837–1844). Hild is famous for his designs for the Cathedral of Eger and
Esztergom Esztergom (; ; or ; , known by Names of European cities in different languages: E–H#E, alternative names) is a city with county rights in northern Hungary, northwest of the capital Budapest. It lies in Komárom-Esztergom County, on the righ ...
. The Reformed Great Church of Debrecen is an outstanding example of the many Protestant churches that were built in the first half of the 19th century. This was the time of the first iron structures in Hungarian architecture, the most important of which is the Széchenyi Chain Bridge by William Tierney Clark. File:Debreceni református nagytemplom.jpg, Reformed Great Church of Debrecen (1805–1824) File:Caput Mater et Magistra Ecclesiarum Hungariae.jpg, Esztergom Basilica (1822–1869) File:Eger Cathedral.jpg, Cathedral Basilica of Eger (1831–1837) File:Magyar Nemzeti Múzeum223.JPG, Hungarian National Museum (1837–1844)


Japan

Although not a western country, due to Western influence Japan has had neoclassical architecture produced in it. This includes the unique which is a
Shinto shrine A Stuart D. B. Picken, 1994. p. xxiii is a structure whose main purpose is to house ("enshrine") one or more kami, , the deities of the Shinto religion. The Also called the . is where a shrine's patron is or are enshrined.Iwanami Japanese dic ...
based on
Greek temples Greek temples (, semantically distinct from Latin language, Latin , "temple") were structures built to house deity statues within Greek sanctuaries in ancient Greek religion. The temple interiors did not serve as meeting places, since the Ancien ...
. It later developed into the Imperial Crown Style which contains elements of both Eastern and Western design Roofs are notably distinctly Asian in this style and it was used heavily by the Japanese Empire in its colonies. File:NMNC01s3200.jpg,
National Museum of Nature and Science The is in the northeast corner of Ueno Park in Tokyo. The museum has exhibitions on pre-Meiji period, Meiji science in Japan. It is the venue of the taxidermied bodies of the legendary dogs Hachikō and Taro and Jiro. A life-size blue whale mod ...
1871 File:Hiko-Jinja (Shrine about aviation) 4.jpg, alt=, (1915) File:Osaka Exchange in 201509.JPG, Osaka Exchange (1949) File:Ministry of Justice Japan02s3200.jpg, Ministry of Justice (Japan)


Malta

Neoclassical architecture was introduced in Malta in the late 18th century, during the final years of Hospitaller rule. Early examples include the Bibliotheca (1786), the
De Rohan Arch The De Rohan Arch (; ), also known as the New Gateway (), is a commemorative arch in Żebbuġ, Malta. It was built in 1798 to commemorate the locality's status as a city, which had been granted by Grand Master Emmanuel de Rohan-Polduc on 21 June ...
(1798) and the Hompesch Gate (1801). However, neoclassical architecture only became popular in Malta following the establishment of British rule in the early 19th century. In 1814, a neoclassical portico decorated with the British coat of arms was added to the Main Guard building so as to serve as a symbol of British Malta. Other 19th-century neoclassical buildings include the Monument to Sir Alexander Ball (1810), RNH Bighi (1832), St Paul's Pro-Cathedral (1844), the Rotunda of Mosta (1860) and the now-destroyed Royal Opera House, Valletta (1866). Neoclassicism gave way to other architectural styles by the late 19th century. Few buildings were built in the neoclassical style during the 20th century, such as the
Domvs Romana The Domus Romana (Latin for "Ancient Romans, Roman House"), stylized as the Domvs Romana (after Latin's lack of distinction between u and v), is a ruined Roman-era house located on the boundary between Mdina and Rabat, Malta, Rabat, Malta. It w ...
museum (1922), and the Courts of Justice building (Valletta) (1965–1971). File:Malta - Mosta - Triq il-Kbira + Rotunda 01 ies.jpg, Rotunda of Mosta, built between 1833 and 1860 File:Die St. Paul’s Pro-Cathedral am Independence Square. - panoramio.jpg, St Paul's Pro-Cathedral, Valletta, built between 1839 and 1844


Mexico

Neoclassical architecture in Mexico had two main eras, the first was toward the end of Spanish colonial rule and the second phase was during independent Mexico beginning in the mid-19th century.


Colonial Mexico

As part of the Spanish Enlightenment's cultural impact on the Kingdom of
New Spain New Spain, officially the Viceroyalty of New Spain ( ; Nahuatl: ''Yankwik Kaxtillan Birreiyotl''), originally the Kingdom of New Spain, was an integral territorial entity of the Spanish Empire, established by Habsburg Spain. It was one of several ...
(Mexico), the crown established the Academy of San Carlos in 1785 to train painters, sculptors, and architects in New Spain, under the direction of the peninsular Gerónimo Antonio Gil. The academy emphasized neoclassicism, which drew on the inspiration of the clean lines of Greek and Roman architecture, but also, for some monuments, from the Aztec and Maya architectural traditions. The preeminent Neoclassical architect in Mexico was Manuel Tolsá. Neoclassicism in Mexican architecture was directly linked to crown policies that sought to rein in the exuberance of the New Spanish Baroque, and to create public buildings of "good taste" funded by the crown, such as the in Mexico City, the in Guadalajara, and the Alhóndiga de Granaditas in
Guanajuato Guanajuato, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Guanajuato, is one of the 32 states that make up the Political divisions of Mexico, Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided into Municipalities of Guanajuato, 46 municipalities and its cap ...
, all built in the late colonial era. File:Casa del marques del apartado.jpg, Palacio del Marqués del Apartado, Mexico City, by Manuel Tolsá (1795–1805) File:Hospicio Cabañas - panoramio - Wiper México.jpg, , Guadalajara, by Manuel Tolsá (1796–1810), one of the oldest and largest hospital complexes in the Americas File:Minería (CDMX) 160523.jpg, , Mexico City, by Manuel Tolsá (1797–1813) File:Templo de Nuestra Señora de Loreto (Frente).jpg, Nuestra Señora de Loreto Church, Mexico City, by Ignacio Castera y Agustín Paz (1806–1819), last church finished before consummation of Independence


Independent Mexico

Following Independence of Mexico, Independence, the construction of major neoclassical buildings came to an end as a result of interruptions to the operation of the Academy of San Carlos and economic turmoil caused by the War of Independence. The economic slump was worsened by a succession of wars, including the Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico, Spanish reconquest attempts, First French Intervention, First American Intervention and Reform War. It was not until the late 1860s, with the Restored Republic (Mexico), restoration of the Republic and the subsequent stability of the ''Pax Porfiriana'' that Mexico saw a significant number of new neoclassical buildings. The Academy of San Carlos saw a renewal of neoclassicism ideals under director Francesco Saverio Cavallari. During the Porfiriato, the predominant architectural taste favored Eclecticism in architecture, Eclecticism. Buildings such as the Teatro Juárez, Museo Nacional de Arte and Palacio de Bellas Artes, are eclectic buildings that combine different architectural styles and are not solely neoclassical. An important unfinished neoclassical building was the planned Palacio Legislativo Federal by Émile Bénard. Construction was halted by the Mexican Revolution and it was eventually turned into the . File:Teatro Degollado Jal 12.JPG, Degollado Theater, Guadalajara, by Jacobo Gálvez, (1856–1866) File:Museo de la Ciudad de Aguascalientes.jpg, Aguascalientes Museum, Aguascalientes City, by Refugio Reyes Rivas (1903) File:Teatro Juarez, Guanajuato.jpg, Juarez Theater, Guanajuato (city), Guanajuato. José Noriega, Antonio Rivas Mercado, Antonio Rivas (1873–1903). File:Hemiciclo Juarez 1.jpg, Benito Juárez Hemicycle, Mexico City, by Guillermo Heredia (1906–1910) File:Parroquia de San José - San José Iturbide, Guanajuato, México.jpg, St. Joseph Parish, San José Iturbide, by Ramón Ramírez y Arangoiti (1866–1995)


Rest of Latin America

The Neoclassical style arrived in the American empires of Spanish America, Spain and Portuguese America, Portugal through projects designed in Europe or carried out locally by European or Criollo people, Criollo architects trained in the academies of the Spain, metropolis. There are also examples of the adaptation to the local architectural language, which during previous centuries had made a synthesis or syncretism of European and pre-Columbian elements in the so-called Colonial Baroque. Two more Classical criteria belong, in Chile, the (1784–1805) and the Santiago Metropolitan Cathedral (1748–1899), both works by the Italian architect Joaquín Toesca. In Ecuador, the Quito's (Ecuador's Government Palace) built between 1611–1801 by Antonio García. At the dawn of the independence of Hispanic America, constructive programs were developed in the new republics. Neoclassicism was introduced in Republic of New Granada, New Granada by Marcelino Pérez de Arroyo. Later, in Colombia, the Capitolio Nacional was built in Bogotá between 1848–1926 by Thomas Reed (architect), Thomas Reed, trained at the Berlin Bauakademie; the Primatial Cathedral of Bogotá (1807–1823), designed by Friar Domingo de Petrés; and in Peru the Basilica Cathedral of Arequipa built between 1540–1844 by Lucas Poblete. Brazil, which became the seat of the court of the Portuguese monarchy, gaining independence from its metropolis as the Empire of Brazil, also used the resources of architecture for the glorification of political power, and it was decided to resort to architects trained in the Académie royale d'architecture. To this period belong the portal of the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts (Brazil), Imperial Academy of Fine Arts in Rio de Janeiro made in 1826 and the Imperial Museum of Brazil, Imperial Palace of Petrópolis built between 1845–1862. Argentina is another of the countries that seeks to shed its colonial past, but in the context of the reorganization of the country after independence in 1810, an aspect of power was sought that transmitted the presence of the State, inspiring respect and devotion, including of course the architecture. However, a style of its own was not conceived, but the Classical canon was introduced, not in the form of a replica of buildings from Antiquity, but with a classical predominance and a lot of influence from 17th-century French art, French Classicism; which lasted until the 20th century. File:Chile-02559 - La Moneda Presidential Palace (49033259257).jpg, from Santiago de Chile (1784–1805) by Joaquín Toesca File:Catedral Metropolitana de Santiago 2012-09-01 10-05-15.jpg, Santiago Metropolitan Cathedral, Chile (1748–1906) by Joaquín Toesca and Ignacio Cremonesi File:Carondelet - Quito.JPG, Quito, Ecuador built between (1611–1801) by Antonio García File:Catedral Primada de Colombia-Bogota.JPG, Primatial Cathedral of Bogotá, Bogotá, Colombia (1807–1823) by Friar Domingo de Petrés File:Lima, Peru…Palacio de Justica (8443267061).jpg, Palace of Justice, Lima, Peru (1939) by Bruno Paprowsky File:Museu_Imperial_03_(cropped).JPG, Imperial Museum of Brazil, Imperial Palace of Petrópolis, Petrópolis, Brazil (1845–1862) by Julius Friedrich Koeler File:Argentina-02271 - Metropolitan Cathedral (49024465657).jpg, Buenos Aires Metropolitan Cathedral, (Buenos Aires, Argentina) (1754–1823) by Antonio Masella and Prosper Catelin File:AR Buenos Aires 0702 002 (16592821364).jpg, Palace of the Argentine National Congress (1896–1906) by Vittorio Meano File:El Capitolio Havana Cuba.jpg, El Capitolio, Havana, Cuba (1926–1929) by Eugenio Rayneri Piedra


Philippines

Like most western tradition, it arrived in the Pacific Archipelagos via rule from New Spain (Mexico) during the period of governance by Mexico City as one of the best preferred architecture in the Spanish East Indies, manifested in churches, civic buildings and one of the popular architectural ornament for newer styled Bahay na bato and Bahay kubo. When the power over the archipelago was transferred from Spain to the United States of America, the style became more popular and developed from slightly simple approach during the Spanish era, to a more ornamented style of the Beaux-Arts architecture sparked by the return of massive number of architectural students to the islands from the western schools. It also became a symbol of democracy and the approaching republic during the Commonwealth of the Philippines, commonwealth. File:National Museum of Fine Arts (Manila, 2024).jpg, National Museum of Fine Arts (Manila) File:Front view of National Museum of Natural History.jpg, National Museum of Natural History (Manila) File:Provincial Capitol, Cebu, Philippines.JPG, Cebu Provincial Capitol File:San Bartolome Church, Malabon City.jpg, San Bartolome Church (Malabon)


Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

The centre of Polish-Lithuanian Neoclassicism was Warsaw and Vilnius under the rule of the last Polish king and Lithuanian grand duke, Stanisław August Poniatowski. Vilnius University was another important centre of Neoclassical architecture in Europe, led by the notable professors of architecture Marcin Knackfus, Laurynas Gucevičius and Karol Podczaszyński. The style was expressed in the shape of main public buildings, such as the Vilnius University Astronomical Observatory, Vilnius Cathedral and the Town Hall, Vilnius, town hall. The best-known architects and artists, who worked in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth were Dominik Merlini, Jan Chrystian Kamsetzer, Szymon Bogumił Zug, Jakub Kubicki, Antonio Corazzi, Efraim Szreger, Chrystian Piotr Aigner and Bertel Thorvaldsen. File:Warschau Lazienki Palast.JPG, Palace on the Isle in Warsaw by Domenico Merlini and Johann Christian Kammsetzer, (1773–93) File:Warszawa, Królikarnia, IGP2538.jpg, Królikarnia in Warsaw by Domenico Merlini, (1782–86) File:Wilno - katedra corrected.jpg, Vilnius Cathedral by Laurynas Gucevičius, (1777–1801) File:Vilniaus Rotuse by Augustas Didzgalvis.jpg, Vilnius Town Hall by Laurynas Gucevičius, (1785-1799) File:Grand Theatre in Warsaw, 2022, 03.jpg, Grand Theatre, Warsaw by Antonio Corazzi, (1825–33) File:Pulawy swiatynia sybilli.jpg, Temple of the Sibyl in Puławy landscape garden by Piotr Aigner, (1798–1801) File:MZ206 DSC0936.JPG, St. Alexander's Church, Warsaw by Piotr Aigner, (1818–25) File:Belweder (2).JPG, Belweder, Belvedere Palace in Warsaw by Jakub Kubicki, (1819–22)


Russia

In the Russian Empire at the end of the 19th century, neoclassical architecture was equal to
Saint Petersburg Saint Petersburg, formerly known as Petrograd and later Leningrad, is the List of cities and towns in Russia by population, second-largest city in Russia after Moscow. It is situated on the Neva, River Neva, at the head of the Gulf of Finland ...
architecture because this style was specific for a huge number of buildings in the city.
Catherine the Great Catherine II. (born Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst; 2 May 172917 November 1796), most commonly known as Catherine the Great, was the reigning empress of Russia from 1762 to 1796. She came to power after overthrowing her husband, Peter I ...
adopted the style during her reign by allowing the architect Jean-Baptiste Vallin de la Mothe to build the Old Hermitage and the Imperial Academy of Arts. File:Casa Pashkov, Moscú, Rusia, 2016-10-03, DD 36-37 HDR.jpg, Pashkov House by Vasily Bazhenov File:Палладиев мраморный мост.jpg, Marble Bridge, 1772, by Vasily Neyolov RUS-2016-SPB-Tauride Palace.jpg, Tauride Palace, 1783-1789, by Ivan Starov File:Памятник Александру III на фоне мраморного дворца.jpg, Marble Palace, 1768-1785, by Antonio Rinaldi (architect), Antonio Rinaldi Admiralty SPB.jpg, Admiralty, Saint Petersburg by Andreyan Zakharov Western Military District buildins Saint Petersburg.jpg, General Staff Building (Saint Petersburg), General Staff Building, 1819–1829, by Carlo Rossi (architect), Carlo Rossi Mil-gallery by Hau.jpg, Military Gallery of the Winter Palace, 1838, by Vasily Stasov File:Главное здание Пулковской обсерватории 2018 год.jpg, Main building of the Pulkovo Observatory, 1837, by Alexander Brullov Дворцовая площадь, Александровская колонна.jpg, The Alexander Column at the Palace Square, by Auguste de Montferrand Собор Казанской иконы Божией Матери (г. Санкт-Петербург, 7 октября 2010 г.).JPG, An interior of Kazan Cathedral, Saint Petersburg, by Andrey Voronikhin Moscow 05-2017 img17 Triumphal Gate.jpg, Triumphal Arch of Moscow, by Joseph Bové Вул. Дворцова.jpg, Teatralna street in Yelisavetgrad (today, Kropyvnytskyi, Ukraine)


Spain

Spanish Neoclassicism was exemplified by the work of Juan de Villanueva, who adapted
Edmund Burke Edmund Burke (; 12 January ew Style, NS1729 – 9 July 1797) was an Anglo-Irish Politician, statesman, journalist, writer, literary critic, philosopher, and parliamentary orator who is regarded as the founder of the Social philosophy, soc ...
's theories of beauty and the sublime to the requirements of Spanish climate and history. He built the Museo del Prado, which combined three functions: an academy, an auditorium, and a museum in one building with three separate entrances. This was part of the ambitious program of Charles III of Spain, Charles III, who intended to make Madrid the Capital of the Arts and Sciences. Very close to the museum, Villanueva built the Royal Observatory of Madrid. He also designed several summer houses for the kings in Casita del Príncipe (El Escorial), El Escorial and Casa del Labrador, Aranjuez and reconstructed the Plaza Mayor, Madrid, among other important works. Villanueva's pupils expanded the Neoclassical style in Spain. File:Museo del Prado 2016 (25185969599).jpg, The Museo del Prado in Madrid, by Juan de Villanueva File:Palau Parl Cat.jpg, Palau del Parlament de Catalunya in Barcelona, Catalonia, built between 1716 and 1748 by Marquis of Verboom File:02082013 184659 SALAMANCA 0139 (9730386757).jpg, Colegio Mayor de San Bartolomé, Salamanca, Castile and León, built in 1760 Lugo Cathedral 2023 - West Façade.jpg, Neoclassical facade of Lugo Cathedral in Lugo, Galicia, by Julián Sánchez Bort


United States

In the new republic,
Robert Adam Robert Adam (3 July 17283 March 1792) was a British neoclassical architect, interior designer and furniture designer. He was the son of William Adam (architect), William Adam (1689–1748), Scotland's foremost architect of the time, and train ...
's neoclassical manner was adapted for the local late 18th- and early 19th-century style, called Federal architecture. One of the pioneers of this style was the English-born
Benjamin Henry Latrobe Benjamin Henry Boneval Latrobe (May 1, 1764 – September 3, 1820) was a British-American Neoclassical architecture, neoclassical architect who immigrated to the United States. He was one of the first formally trained, professional architects in ...
, who is often noted as one of America's first formally trained professional architects and the father of American architecture. The Baltimore Basilica, the first Roman Catholic cathedral in the United States, is considered by many experts to be Latrobe's masterpiece. Another notable American architect who is identified with Federal architecture was
Thomas Jefferson Thomas Jefferson (, 1743July 4, 1826) was an American Founding Fathers of the United States, Founding Father and the third president of the United States from 1801 to 1809. He was the primary author of the United States Declaration of Indepe ...
. He was very interested in the building he saw in Paris when he served there as ambassador, and built several neoclassical buildings, with his own innovations, including his personal estate Monticello, the Virginia State Capitol, and the University of Virginia. A second neoclassical manner found in the United States during the 19th century was called
Greek Revival architecture Greek Revival architecture is a architectural style, style that began in the middle of the 18th century but which particularly flourished in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, predominantly in northern Europe, the United States, and Canada, ...
. It differs from Federal architecture as it strictly follows the Greek idiom, however it was used to describe all buildings of the Neoclassicism period that display classical orders. File:University of Virginia Rotunda in 2006.jpg, The Rotunda (University of Virginia), University of Virginia Rotunda, an example of the Neoclassical architecture
Thomas Jefferson Thomas Jefferson (, 1743July 4, 1826) was an American Founding Fathers of the United States, Founding Father and the third president of the United States from 1801 to 1809. He was the primary author of the United States Declaration of Indepe ...
built on campus. File:Columbia University - Butler Library (48170368646).jpg, Butler Library at Columbia University in New York City (finished in 1934) File:US Capitol west side.JPG, United States Capitol (finished in 1800) File:Federal Hall and George Washington statue in New York City.JPG, Federal Hall National Memorial (1842) File:Jefferson Memorial (cropped).jpg, Jefferson Memorial in Washington D.C (1939–1943) File:White House north and south sides.jpg, North and south sides of the
White House The White House is the official residence and workplace of the president of the United States. Located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue Northwest (Washington, D.C.), NW in Washington, D.C., it has served as the residence of every U.S. president ...
(completed in 1800) File:Huntington City Hall, Huntington, West Virginia LCCN2015631822.tif, Front view of the Huntington City Hall, in Huntington, West Virginia (completed in 1915)


See also

*Federal architecture *New classical architecture *Outline of classical architecture *Nordic Classicism *List of architectural styles


References

28. ^ Guagliumi, Silvia (2014), "La Villa Archinto a Monza.Analogie con alcuni esempi d'architettura neoclassica in Lombardia", Silvia editrice (ISBN 978-88-96036-62-4), basata sulla propria Tesi di Laurea in Architettura presso il Politecnico di Milano discussa nell'anno accademico 1982/'83 con Relatore il Prof.Arch.C.Perogalli.


Further reading

*Détournelle, Athanase, iarchive:gri 33125009317989, ''Recueil d'architecture nouvelle'', A Paris : Chez l'auteur, 1805 *Groth, Håkan, ''Neoclassicism in the North: Swedish Furniture and Interiors, 1770–1850'' *Honour, Hugh, ''Neoclassicism'' *Irwin, David, ''Neoclassicism'' (in series Art and Ideas) Phaidon, paperback, 1997 *Lorentz, Stanislaw, ''Neoclassicism in Poland'' (Series History of art in Poland) *McCormick, Thomas, ''Charles-Louis Clérisseau and the Genesis of Neoclassicism'' Architectural History Foundation, 1991 *Praz, Mario. ''On Neoclassicism'' *Guagliumi, Silvia, " La Villa Archinto a Monza.Analogie con alcuni esempi d'architettura neoclassica in Lombardia", Silvia editrice, 2014 (ISBN 9788896036624)


External links


Institute of Classical Architecture and Art
(official website)

(archived 9 June 2013)
OpenSource Classicism
– project for free educational content about neoclassical architecture {{Use dmy dates, date=July 2023 Neoclassical architecture, Neoclassicism, A01 Revival architectural styles Architectural styles 18th-century architectural styles 19th-century architecture 20th-century architecture