Nathan ben Abraham, known also by the epithet ''President of the Academy'' () in the
Land of Israel
The Land of Israel () is the traditional Jewish name for an area of the Southern Levant. Related biblical, religious and historical English terms include the Land of Canaan, the Promised Land, the Holy Land, and Palestine (see also Isr ...
(died ca. 1045 – 1051), was an 11th-century rabbi and
exegete
Exegesis ( ; from the Greek , from , "to lead out") is a critical explanation or interpretation of a text. The term is traditionally applied to the interpretation of Biblical works. In modern usage, exegesis can involve critical interpretations ...
of the
Mishnah
The Mishnah or the Mishna (; he, מִשְׁנָה, "study by repetition", from the verb ''shanah'' , or "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first major written collection of the Jewish oral traditions which is known as the Oral Tor ...
who lived in
Ramla
Ramla or Ramle ( he, רַמְלָה, ''Ramlā''; ar, الرملة, ''ar-Ramleh'') is a city in the Central District of Israel. Today, Ramle is one of Israel's mixed cities, with both a significant Jewish and Arab populations.
The city was f ...
, in the
Jund Filastin
Jund Filasṭīn ( ar, جُنْد فِلَسْطِيْن, "the military district of Palestine") was one of the military districts of the Umayyad and Abbasid province of Bilad al-Sham (Levant), organized soon after the Muslim conquest of the Lev ...
district of the
Fatimid Caliphate
The Fatimid Caliphate was an Ismaili Shi'a caliphate extant from the tenth to the twelfth centuries AD. Spanning a large area of North Africa, it ranged from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Red Sea in the east. The Fatimids, a ...
. He was the author of the first known commentary covering the entire Mishnah.
Biography
A critical analysis of the time-frame in which the author of the Judeo-Arabic Mishnah commentary lived places him in the early 11th century. Assaf suggests that he was Rabbi Nathan the second, the son of Rabbi Abraham who was called ''the Pious'', a contemporary of Rabbi Abiathar, who served in the ''geonate'' of the Land of Israel in 1095 CE. This view has been rejected by more recent scholars, such as Gil (1983), Friedman (1990), Danzig (1998), Amar (2011) and Fox (1994), who put him two generations earlier. In around 1011, Nathan travelled to
Qayrawan
Kairouan (, ), also spelled El Qayrawān or Kairwan ( ar, ٱلْقَيْرَوَان, al-Qayrawān , aeb, script=Latn, Qeirwān ), is the capital of the Kairouan Governorate in Tunisia and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The city was founded by t ...
, to attend to his family inheritance, and while there he studied under the illustrious Rabbi Hushiel ben Elhanan, one of the greatest Jewish scholars of the time. During this time he would travel to
Fustat
Fusṭāṭ ( ar, الفُسطاط ''al-Fusṭāṭ''), also Al-Fusṭāṭ and Fosṭāṭ, was the first capital of Egypt under Muslim rule, and the historical centre of modern Cairo. It was built adjacent to what is now known as Old Cairo by t ...
(Old Cairo), in Egypt, where he had certain business engagements, and where it was that he'd meet his future wife, the daughter of Mevorakh ben Eli, a wealthy citizen of Fustat. Nearing the age of forty, he returned to his native Palestine and, after settling in Ramleh where he vied with a certain ''gaon'' Solomon ben Judah of Jerusalem between the years 1038 and 1051 over the position of ''gaon'', he was eventually appointed the ''
Av Beit Din
The ''av beit din'' ( ''ʾabh bêth dîn'', "chief of the court" or "chief justice"), also spelled ''av beis din'' or ''abh beth din'' and abbreviated ABD (), was the second-highest-ranking member of the Sanhedrin during the Second Temple period, ...
'' (President of the court) in Palestine, a position only second to that of the ''gaon'', and which post he held until his death. During his years of public service, Rabbi Nathan had garnered the support and backing of Diaspora communities, although Solomon ben Judah had secured the backing of the local community, as well as the
Fatimid
The Fatimid Caliphate was an Ismaili Shi'a caliphate extant from the tenth to the twelfth centuries AD. Spanning a large area of North Africa, it ranged from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Red Sea in the east. The Fatimids, a dyna ...
governor of Ramleh. In Palestine, he compiled a commentary on the Mishnah, which commentary enjoyed widespread circulation in the Jewish world in the late 12th and early 13th centuries.
Commentary
Rabbi Nathan's work is one of the first known commentaries of the Mishnah, ranking with that of Rabbi
Hai Gaon
Hai ben Sherira (Hebrew: האי/י בר שרירא) better known as Hai Gaon (Hebrew: האי/י גאון, חאיי גאון), was a medieval Jewish theologian, rabbi and scholar who served as Gaon of the Talmudic academy of Pumbedita during the ...
's commentary on ''
Seder Taharot
''Tohorot'' (Hebrew: טָהֳרוֹת, literally "Purities") is the sixth and last order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud). This order deals with the clean/unclean distinction and family purity. This is the longest of the orders in t ...
'' in the Mishnah (and is the oldest existing commentary encompassing the entire Six Orders of the Mishnah). Scholars have ascribed this commentary a unique significance, saying that by virtue of its composition in the Land of Israel, its interpretations are believed to embody an unbroken Palestinian-Jewish tradition on the meanings of difficult words. The treatise also sheds light on the diachrony of Hebrew words.
The entire work was rendered into a Hebrew translation by Rabbi
Yosef Qafih
Yosef Qafiḥ ( he, יוסף קאפח , ), widely known as Rabbi Yosef Kapach (27 November 1917 – 21 July 2000), was a Yemenite-Israeli authority on Jewish religious law (''halakha''), a dayan of the Supreme Rabbinical Court in Israel, and o ...
, with an abridged first edition being published between the years 1955 and 1958, and the second edition in 1965. Even so, the work has not seen widespread circulation.
Anonymous copyist
Nathan's original
Judeo-Arabic
Judeo-Arabic dialects (, ; ; ) are ethnolects formerly spoken by Jews throughout the Arabic-speaking world. Under the ISO 639 international standard for language codes, Judeo-Arabic is classified as a macrolanguage under the code jrb, enco ...
commentary of the Mishnah served as the basis for a later recension made by a 12th-century anonymous author and copyist, believed to be of
Yemenite Jewish
Yemenite Jews or Yemeni Jews or Teimanim (from ''Yehudei Teman''; ar, اليهود اليمنيون) are those Jews who live, or once lived, in Yemen, and their descendants maintaining their customs. Between June 1949 and September 1950, the ...
provenance. It is doubtful that his work would have survived, had it not been for the faithful copyist, whose innovation was to interweave in the existing text the divergent views held by several ''
geonim
''Geonim'' ( he, גאונים; ; also transliterated Gaonim, singular Gaon) were the presidents of the two great Babylonian Talmudic Academies of Sura and Pumbedita, in the Abbasid Caliphate, and were the generally accepted spiritual leaders of ...
'' and the explanations given by them for words and passages in the Mishnah. The author's introduction reads: "I found the commentaries of Rabbi Nathan, the President of the Academy,
hich he made
Ij ( fa, ايج, also Romanized as Īj; also known as Hich and Īch) is a village in Golabar Rural District, in the Central District of Ijrud County
Ijrud County ( fa, شهرستان ایجرود) is located in Zanjan province, Iran. The c ...
for explicating the different language usages in the Mishnah, and I have seen fit to add thereto others besides, drawn from the commentaries of Israel's sages."
The anonymous copyist is said to have lived between 1105 – 1170 CE, making him a contemporary with Rabbi
Isaac Alfasi
Isaac ben Jacob Alfasi ha-Cohen (1013–1103) ( ar, إسحاق الفاسي, he, ר' יצחק אלפסי) - also known as the Alfasi or by his Hebrew acronym Rif (Rabbi Isaac al-Fasi), was a Maghrebi Talmudist and posek (decider in matters of ...
and
Nathan ben Jehiel
Nathan ben Jehiel of Rome (Hebrew: נתן בן יחיאל מרומי; ''Nathan ben Y'ḥiel Mi Romi'' according to Sephardic pronunciation) ( 1035 – 1106) was a Jewish Italian lexicographer. He authored the Arukh, a notable dictionary of Talmu ...
of Rome, the author of ''Sefer Arukh''. He is the first to introduce the work as being a commentary of the Mishnah, written by "Rabbeinu Nathan, ''Av ha-Yeshiva''" (the President of the Academy), whom he calls "the son of Abraham ''ha-Ḥasīd''" (Abraham the Pious). This last epithet is believed to have been an error by the copyist, who mistook its true author, Nathan ben Abraham (of the 11th century), with Nathan ben Abraham II, the grandson of the former. He then proceeds to bring down a long introduction wherein he spans the history of the written and oral Laws, writing in
Judeo-Arabic
Judeo-Arabic dialects (, ; ; ) are ethnolects formerly spoken by Jews throughout the Arabic-speaking world. Under the ISO 639 international standard for language codes, Judeo-Arabic is classified as a macrolanguage under the code jrb, enco ...
and commencing with the words, ''qāl ğāmiʿuh'' (= "So said the gatherer f the sayings of the fathers" etc.), covering the Torah's reception at Sinai and how it was transmitted down throughout successive generations, naming some thirteen generations from the time of Israel's return from the
Babylonian exile
The Babylonian captivity or Babylonian exile is the period in Jewish history during which a large number of Judeans from the ancient Kingdom of Judah were captives in Babylon, the capital city of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, following their defeat ...
to the time of Rabbi
Judah HaNasi
Judah ha-Nasi ( he, יְהוּדָה הַנָּשִׂיא, ''Yəhūḏā hanNāsīʾ''; Yehudah HaNasi or Judah the Prince) or Judah I, was a second-century rabbi (a tanna of the fifth generation) and chief redactor and editor of the ''Mi ...
who compiled the Mishnah in 189 CE. In all this, he never once mentions his own name, but chooses to remain anonymous. He also explains some of the terminology used in the Talmud, such as when a saying is meant to be understood as an external teaching ( Baraitta) outside of the Mishnah, and when it is to be understood as a teaching strictly derived from the Mishnah compiled by Rabbi Judah HaNasi. He then mentions the redaction of the
Babylonian Talmud
The Talmud (; he, , Talmūḏ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law (''halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the cent ...
under
Rav Ashi
Rav Ashi ( he, רב אשי) ("Rabbi Ashi") (352–427) was a Babylonian Jewish rabbi, of the sixth generation of amoraim. He reestablished the Academy at Sura and was the first editor of the Babylonian Talmud.
Biography
According to a trad ...
as occurring in the year 841 of
Seleucid era
The Seleucid era ("SE") or (literally "year of the Greeks" or "Greek year"), sometimes denoted "AG," was a system of numbering years in use by the Seleucid Empire and other countries among the ancient Hellenistic civilizations. It is sometimes r ...
(corresponding with 530 CE), and names the great exegetes that followed this period, namely: the author of ''Halakhot Ḳetu'ot'' and ''Halakhot Pesuḳot'', Rabbi
Yehudai Gaon
Yehudai ben Nahman (or Yehudai Gaon; Hebrew: יהודאי גאון, sometimes: Yehudai b. Nahman) was the head of the yeshiva in Sura from 757 to 761, during the Gaonic period of Judaism. He was originally a member of the academy of Pumbedita, ...
; the author of ''Halakhot Gedolot'', Rabbi Shimon Kiara; the author of the ''Beramot'' (a term applied to the book '' Sheëltot'' of Rav Aḥai, the Gaon of Shabḥa); Rabbi
Hai Gaon
Hai ben Sherira (Hebrew: האי/י בר שרירא) better known as Hai Gaon (Hebrew: האי/י גאון, חאיי גאון), was a medieval Jewish theologian, rabbi and scholar who served as Gaon of the Talmudic academy of Pumbedita during the ...
; Rabbi
Isaac ibn Ghiyyat
Isaac ben Judah ibn Ghiyyat (or Ghayyat) ( he, יצחק בן יהודה אבן גיאת, ar, ﺇﺑﻦ ﻏﻴﺎث ''ibn Ghayyath'') (1030/1038–1089) was a Spanish rabbi, Biblical commentator, codifier of Jewish law, philosopher, and liturgical ...
of
Lucena
Lucena, officially the City of Lucena ( fil, Lungsod ng Lucena), is a 1st class Cities of the Philippines#Legal classification, highly urbanized city in the Calabarzon region of the Philippines. It is the capital city of the Provinces of the ...
; Rabbi Nissim, the author of ''Sefer ha-Mafteaḥ'', Rabbi
Samuel ben Ḥofni Samuel ben Hofni (Hebrew: שמואל בן חפני, or full name: רב שמואל בן חפני גאון bbreviation: רשב"חor שמואל בן חפני הכהן; also: Samuel b. Hofni or Samuel ha-Kohen ben Hofni; died 1034). He was the Gaon of ...
Isaac Alfasi
Isaac ben Jacob Alfasi ha-Cohen (1013–1103) ( ar, إسحاق الفاسي, he, ר' יצחק אלפסי) - also known as the Alfasi or by his Hebrew acronym Rif (Rabbi Isaac al-Fasi), was a Maghrebi Talmudist and posek (decider in matters of ...
. A certain book entitled ''Kitāb al-Ḥāwī'' ("the Compendium") is cited four times, composed by a certain R. David b. Saadiah.
Three of the author's more extensive commentaries exist for the tractates ''Berakhot'', ''Shevu'ot'' and ''Avot''. Since the anonymous copyist makes use of other sources in the original work bequeathed by Rabbi Nathan, it is not uncommon for him to give one explanation for a word in one tractate, but in a different tractate give a different explanation for the same word. The anonymous copyist deviated from the set order of the Mishnah, bringing down the order as follows: (''Seder Zera'im'') Berakhot, (''Seder Mo'ed'') 'Eruvin, Pesahim, Sheqalim, Kippurim, Sukkah, Betzah, Rosh Ha-Shannah, Ta'anith, Megillah, Hagiggah, Mo'ed Qatan, etc.
An early reference to Nathan ben Abraham's Mishnah commentary is brought down by Rabbi
Moses ben Nahman
Moses ben Nachman ( he, מֹשֶׁה בֶּן־נָחְמָן ''Mōše ben-Nāḥmān'', "Moses son of Nachman"; 1194–1270), commonly known as Nachmanides (; el, Ναχμανίδης ''Nakhmanídēs''), and also referred to by the acronym Ra ...
(1194–1270), who cites the commentary in his own Talmudic commentary, saying: "Likewise, I found written in the glosses of old copies of the Mishnah composed in the Land of Israel where they explained the meaning of ''sippūq'' (Heb. ספוק) as having the connotation of ''adā'', in the Arabic tongue, eaning he that grafts a tree upon a tree." The reference here is to Nathan's commentary in Tractate '' Orlah'' (1:5).
Vocabulary
Rabbi Nathan's method of elucidating Hebrew words is mostly similar to that of
Maimonides
Musa ibn Maimon (1138–1204), commonly known as Maimonides (); la, Moses Maimonides and also referred to by the acronym Rambam ( he, רמב״ם), was a Sephardic Jewish philosopher who became one of the most prolific and influential Torah ...
' Mishnah commentary - the two often complementing each other, but differing in several key areas. A comparative study gives readers a glimpse into words that carried different connotations in that period, with occasional words whose identification can have a significant
halachic
''Halakha'' (; he, הֲלָכָה, ), also transliterated as ''halacha'', ''halakhah'', and ''halocho'' ( ), is the collective body of Jewish religious laws which is derived from the written and Oral Torah. Halakha is based on biblical comman ...
bearing, depending on how they are explained. There are above one-hundred entries of plants mentioned in the Mishnah that have been identified by Rabbi Nathan. In some entries, two different explanations are given for one word, the one perhaps under the authority of another rabbinic sage.
}) as being what is called in Arabic ''ḥarshuf'', variant ''ḥurfesh'', which means artichoke, whose cultivated species (Cynara scolymus) is now allotted to people as ''ḥurfesh beni adam'', while its wild variety (Cynara syriaca) as ''ḥurfesh el-ḥamir'' is left for donkeys.
, -
, style="background:Navajowhite; color:blue; text-align:center; width:65px", Avodah Zarah 1:5
, style="background:Navajowhite; text-align:center; width:65px", נקליבס
, style="text-align:center;", גוארשין millet (''
Panicum miliaceum
''Panicum miliaceum'' is a grain crop with many common names, including proso millet, broomcorn millet, common millet, hog millet, Kashfi millet, red millet, and white millet. Archaeobotanical evidence suggests millet was first domesticated abou ...
'')
, style="text-align:center;", "one of the erealgrasses"
, style="text-align:center;", ---
, style="text-align:center;", ---
, -
, style="background:Navajowhite; color:blue; text-align:center; width:65px", Uktzin 2:2Also in Mishnah ''Shevi'it'' 8:1 and ''Ma'aserot'' 3:9
, style="background:Navajowhite; text-align:center; width:65px", סיאה
, style="text-align:center;", אלסאיה (''al-sā'ya'')
, style="text-align:center;", אלפוד'נג (a generic word for aromatic plants of the
family
Family (from la, familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its members and of society. Idea ...
Lamiaceae
The Lamiaceae ( )
or Labiatae are a family of flowering plants commonly known as the mint, deadnettle or sage family. Many of the plants are aromatic in all parts and include widely used culinary herbs like basil, mint, rosemary, sage, savory ...
)
, style="text-align:center;", צתרי, which is פוליו = pennyroyal; but others say סוסימברו (''susimbro'')''Sefer Arukh'' s.v. סאה, British Library (Add MS 26881).
, style="text-align:center;", ---
, -
, style="background:Navajowhite; color:blue; text-align:center; width:65px", Shevi'it 9:5
, style="background:Navajowhite; text-align:center; width:65px", סנריות
, style="text-align:center;", הנשים החגורות בסינר (“women who are girdled in a ''sinar''”)
, style="text-align:center;", “an unidentified vegetable known to that place”
, style="text-align:center;", קרדי דומשתקי (
Italian
Italian(s) may refer to:
* Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries
** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom
** Italian language, a Romance language
*** Regional Ita ...
Vigna radiata
The mung bean (''Vigna radiata''), alternatively known as the green gram, maash ( fa, ماش٫ )٫ mūng (), monggo, or munggo (Philippines), is a plant species in the legume family.Brief Introduction of Mung Bean. Vigna Radiata Extract G ...
Lepidium latifolium
''Lepidium latifolium'', known by several common names including perennial pepperweed, broadleaved pepperweed, pepperwort, or peppergrass, dittander, dittany, and tall whitetop, is a perennial plant that is a member of the mustard and cabbage fa ...
'')
, style="text-align:center;", “that which is similar to radish, but there are those who say
Satureja
''Satureja'' is a genus of aromatic plants of the family Lamiaceae, related to rosemary and thyme. It is native to North Africa, southern and southeastern Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asia. A few New World species were formerly included ...
(potherb)”
, style="text-align:center;", סיטרג דרקונת “a potherb, similar to radish; Dragon (?) pepperwort” (Explained by some to mean ''
Lepidium latifolium
''Lepidium latifolium'', known by several common names including perennial pepperweed, broadleaved pepperweed, pepperwort, or peppergrass, dittander, dittany, and tall whitetop, is a perennial plant that is a member of the mustard and cabbage fa ...
'', and by others to mean ''
Inula helenium
Elecampane (''Inula helenium''), pronounced and also called horse-heal or elfdock, is a widespread plant species in the sunflower family Asteraceae. It is native to Eurasia from Spain to Xinjiang province in western China, and naturalized in ...
Crataegus aronia
''Crataegus azarolus'' is a species of hawthorn known by the common names azarole, azerole, and Mediterranean medlar. It is native to the Mediterranean Basin and is a common plant there, growing on sites comparable to those the European common h ...
Crataegus aronia
''Crataegus azarolus'' is a species of hawthorn known by the common names azarole, azerole, and Mediterranean medlar. It is native to the Mediterranean Basin and is a common plant there, growing on sites comparable to those the European common h ...
'')
, style="text-align:center;", אלזערור (''Crataegus aronia'') סורבא Sorb-apples
, style="text-align:center;", זערור Hawthorn (''Crataegus aronia'')
, -
, style="background:Navajowhite; color:blue; text-align:center; width:65px", Uktzin 3:2
, style="background:Navajowhite; text-align:center; width:65px", עכביות
, style="text-align:center;", ---
, style="text-align:center;", “a plant whose leaves consist of many thorns... eaten either raw or cooked ...called by the Spaniards 'thistle'...” Wild artichoke ('' Cynara scolymus'') Akkoub ('' Gundelia tournefortii'')
, style="text-align:center;", “''qōṣ'' (= thorn) this is the ''ʻakkabit''” ('' Gundelia tournefortii'')
, style="text-align:center;", ---
, -
, style="background:Navajowhite; color:blue; text-align:center; width:65px", Tamid 2:3
, style="background:Navajowhite; text-align:center; width:65px", עץ שמן
, style="text-align:center;", אלצנובר Aleppo pine (''
Pinus halepensis
''Pinus halepensis'', commonly known as the Aleppo pine, also known as the Jerusalem pine, is a pine native to the Mediterranean region.
Description
''Pinus halepensis'' is a small to medium-sized tree, tall, with a trunk diameter up to , exce ...
'')
, style="text-align:center;", unidentified
, style="text-align:center;", “a genus of אלצנובר (
Aleppo pine
''Pinus halepensis'', commonly known as the Aleppo pine, also known as the Jerusalem pine, is a pine native to the Mediterranean region.
Description
''Pinus halepensis'' is a small to medium-sized tree, tall, with a trunk diameter up to , ex ...
) which are the
Pine nut
Pine nuts, also called piñón (), pinoli (), pignoli or chilgoza (), are the edible seeds of pines (family Pinaceae, genus ''Pinus''). According to the Food and Agriculture Organization, only 29 species provide edible nuts, while 20 are trad ...
Asplenium scolopendrium
''Asplenium scolopendrium'', commonly known as the hart's-tongue fern, is an evergreen fern in the genus ''Asplenium'' native to the Northern Hemisphere.
Description
The most striking and unusual feature of the fern is its simple, undivided fron ...
'')
, style="text-align:center;", “herbs with which one fulfills his obligation at Passover, and which sprout around the date-palm tree, and
hich
Ij ( fa, ايج, also Romanized as Īj; also known as Hich and Īch) is a village in Golabar Rural District, in the Central District of Ijrud County, Zanjan Province, Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also ...
Rabbi
Hai Gaon
Hai ben Sherira (Hebrew: האי/י בר שרירא) better known as Hai Gaon (Hebrew: האי/י גאון, חאיי גאון), was a medieval Jewish theologian, rabbi and scholar who served as Gaon of the Talmudic academy of Pumbedita during the ...
explained as meaning `a very thick plant, having that which resembles needle points`”
, style="text-align:center;", (see explanation in ''Sefer Arukh'')
, -
, style="background:Navajowhite; color:blue; text-align:center; width:65px", Kila'im 1:1
, style="background:Navajowhite; text-align:center; width:65px", פול
, style="text-align:center;", דגרה Cowpea ('' Vigna sinensis'')
, style="text-align:center;", אלפול Fava bean (''
Vicia faba
''Vicia faba'', commonly known as the broad bean, fava bean, or faba bean, is a species of vetch, a flowering plant in the pea and bean family Fabaceae. It is widely cultivated as a crop for human consumption, and also as a cover crop. Varieti ...
Vicia faba
''Vicia faba'', commonly known as the broad bean, fava bean, or faba bean, is a species of vetch, a flowering plant in the pea and bean family Fabaceae. It is widely cultivated as a crop for human consumption, and also as a cover crop. Varieti ...
Ruta chalepensis
Dried fruits.
''Ruta chalepensis'' is a species of flowering plant in the Rutaceae family known by the common name fringed rue. It is native to Eurasia and North Africa. It has been found elsewhere as an introduced species. It is a perennial herb ...
Papaver somniferum
''Papaver somniferum'', commonly known as the opium poppy or breadseed poppy, is a species of flowering plant in the family Papaveraceae. It is the species of plant from which both opium and poppy seeds are derived and is also a valuable orname ...
Cydonia oblonga
The quince (; ''Cydonia oblonga'') is the sole member of the genus ''Cydonia'' in the Malinae subtribe (which also contains apples and pears, among other fruits) of the Rosaceae family. It is a deciduous tree that bears hard, aromatic bright ...
Cydonia oblonga
The quince (; ''Cydonia oblonga'') is the sole member of the genus ''Cydonia'' in the Malinae subtribe (which also contains apples and pears, among other fruits) of the Rosaceae family. It is a deciduous tree that bears hard, aromatic bright ...
Cydonia oblonga
The quince (; ''Cydonia oblonga'') is the sole member of the genus ''Cydonia'' in the Malinae subtribe (which also contains apples and pears, among other fruits) of the Rosaceae family. It is a deciduous tree that bears hard, aromatic bright ...
Cydonia oblonga
The quince (; ''Cydonia oblonga'') is the sole member of the genus ''Cydonia'' in the Malinae subtribe (which also contains apples and pears, among other fruits) of the Rosaceae family. It is a deciduous tree that bears hard, aromatic bright ...
'')
, -
, style="background:Navajowhite; color:blue; text-align:center; width:65px", Shabbat 2:1
, style="background:Navajowhite; text-align:center; width:65px", פתילת העידן
, style="text-align:center;", “that which resembles wool between the wood and bark of the
willow
Willows, also called sallows and osiers, from the genus ''Salix'', comprise around 400 speciesMabberley, D.J. 1997. The Plant Book, Cambridge University Press #2: Cambridge. of typically deciduous trees and shrubs, found primarily on moist so ...
, but others say it is the Sodom apple (''
Calotropis procera
''Calotropis procera'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae that is native to North Africa, Pakistan, tropical Africa, Western Asia, South Asia, and Indochina. The green fruits contain a toxic milky sap that is extremely b ...
'')” אלעשר (i.e. bast wick)
, style="text-align:center;", “a woollen ibrethat appears in one of the herbal species”
, style="text-align:center;", עמרניתא דערבה (Wool-like bast of the willow tree)
, style="text-align:center;", ---
, -
, style="background:Navajowhite; color:blue; text-align:center; width:65px", Shabbat 2:1
, style="background:Navajowhite; text-align:center; width:65px", פתילת המדבר
, style="text-align:center;", ---
, style="text-align:center;", “herbal leaves that can be twined and lit”
, style="text-align:center;", ---
, style="text-align:center;", ---
, -
, style="background:Navajowhite; color:blue; text-align:center; width:65px", Shevi'it 7:1
, style="background:Navajowhite; text-align:center; width:65px", קוצה
, style="text-align:center;", חור White poplar (''
Populus alba
''Populus alba'', commonly called silver poplar,Webb, C. J.; Sykes, W. R.; Garnock-Jones, P. J. 1988: Flora of New Zealand. Vol. IV. Naturalised Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms, Dicotyledons. 4. Christchurch, New Zealand, Botany Division, D.S.I.R. si ...
'')
, style="text-align:center;", “one of the kinds of
dyestuff
A dye is a colored substance that chemically bonds to the substrate to which it is being applied. This distinguishes dyes from pigments which do not chemically bind to the material they color. Dye is generally applied in an aqueous solution and ...
, some of the commentators having explained it as meaning safflower (''
Carthamus tinctorius
Safflower (''Carthamus tinctorius'') is a highly branched, herbaceous, thistle-like annual plant in the family Asteraceae. It is commercially cultivated for vegetable oil extracted from the seeds and was used by the early Spanish colonies al ...
'')”
, style="text-align:center;", רוייא (''Robbia'' = Dyer's madder)
, style="text-align:center;", ---
, -
, style="background:Navajowhite; color:blue; text-align:center; width:65px", Uktzin 2:2
, style="background:Navajowhite; text-align:center; width:65px", קורנית
, style="text-align:center;", סאחיה (''sāḥiyya'')
, style="text-align:center;", “''al-ḥāšā'', very popular among the physicians, and which is a herb among the
Lamiaceae
The Lamiaceae ( )
or Labiatae are a family of flowering plants commonly known as the mint, deadnettle or sage family. Many of the plants are aromatic in all parts and include widely used culinary herbs like basil, mint, rosemary, sage, savory ...
”
, style="text-align:center;", אוריגנו, but others say סדוריא (“
Oregano
Oregano (, ; ''Origanum vulgare'') is a species of flowering plant in the mint family Lamiaceae. It was native to the Mediterranean region, but widely naturalised elsewhere in the temperate Northern Hemisphere.
Oregano is a woody perennial ...
, others say
Satureja
''Satureja'' is a genus of aromatic plants of the family Lamiaceae, related to rosemary and thyme. It is native to North Africa, southern and southeastern Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asia. A few New World species were formerly included ...
savory
Savory or Savoury may refer to:
Common usage
* Herbs of the genus ''Satureja'', particularly:
** Summer savory (''Satureja hortensis''), an annual herb, used to flavor food
** Winter savory (''Satureja montana''), a perennial herb, also used to ...
Styrax officinalis
''Styrax officinalis'' is a species of shrub in the family Styracaceae.
Description
''Styrax officinalis'' is a deciduous shrub reaching a height of . It has a simple, relaxed form, with very thin elliptical leaves long and wide, alternate and ...
Solanum melongena
Eggplant ( US, Canada), aubergine ( UK, Ireland) or brinjal (Indian subcontinent, Singapore, Malaysia, South Africa) is a plant species in the nightshade family Solanaceae. ''Solanum melongena'' is grown worldwide for its edible fruit.
Mo ...
'')
, style="text-align:center;", אלקנאריה
Artichoke
The globe artichoke (''Cynara cardunculus'' var. ''scolymus'' ),Rottenberg, A., and D. Zohary, 1996: "The wild ancestry of the cultivated artichoke." Genet. Res. Crop Evol. 43, 53–58. also known by the names French artichoke and green articho ...
Cannabis indica
''Cannabis indica'' is an annual plant species in the family Cannabaceae which produces large amounts of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and is cultivated for purposes including hashish in India. The high concentrations of THC provide euphoric effec ...
Hedera
''Hedera'', commonly called ivy (plural ivies), is a genus of 12–15 species of evergreen climbing or ground-creeping woody plants in the family Araliaceae, native to western, central and southern Europe, Macaronesia, northwestern Africa an ...
Allium ampeloprasum
''Allium ampeloprasum'' is a member of the onion genus ''Allium''. The wild plant is commonly known as wild leek or broadleaf wild leek. Its native range is southern Europe to western Asia, but it is cultivated in many other places and has becom ...
var. kurrat'')
, style="text-align:center;", אלכראת' אלשאמי Syrian leeks (Allium ampeloprasum var. kurrat)
, style="text-align:center;",
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Greece
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group.
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family.
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
Pyrus
Pears are fruits produced and consumed around the world, growing on a tree and harvested in the Northern Hemisphere in late summer into October. The pear tree and shrub are a species of genus ''Pyrus'' , in the family Rosaceae, bearing the po ...
'' spp.) אלברקוק Apricot (''
Prunus armeniaca
''Prunus armeniaca'' is the most commonly cultivated apricot species. The native range is somewhat uncertain due to its extensive prehistoric cultivation. Genetic studies indicate Central Asia is the center of origin. It is extensively cultivate ...
'')
, style="text-align:center;", אלכמת'רי “Pears (''al-kummathra'') which are commonly known among us under the name ''al-’inğās''” Pear ('' Pyrus syriaca'')
, style="text-align:center;", גרוסומיל"י pear; small apple
, style="text-align:center;", "little apples resembling galls"
, -
, style="background:Navajowhite; color:blue; text-align:center; width:65px", Terumot 3:1
, style="background:Navajowhite; text-align:center; width:65px", sing. קשות pl. קישואין
, style="text-align:center;", אלקת'א Egyptian cucumber (''Cucumis melo var. chate'')
, style="text-align:center;", אלקת'א Egyptian cucumber (Cucumis melo var. chate) פקוס Hairy cucumber (''Faqqūs'') ''Cucumis sativus, var. chate''
, style="text-align:center;",
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter ...
: אלכיאר (''al-khiyyar'') Cucumber (''
Cucumis sativus
Cucumber (''Cucumis sativus'') is a widely-cultivated creeping vine plant in the Cucurbitaceae family that bears usually cylindrical fruits, which are used as culinary vegetables.Cucumber (''
Ziziphus spina-christi
''Ziziphus spina-christi'', known as the Christ's thorn jujube, is an evergreen tree or plant native to northern and tropical Africa, Southern and Western Asia. It is native to the Levant, East Africa, Mesopotamia and some tropical countries. Fr ...
Reseda luteola
''Reseda luteola'' is a plant species in the genus '' Reseda''. Common names include dyer's rocket, dyer's weed, weld, woold, and yellow weed. A native of Europe and Western Asia, the plant can be found in North America as an introduced species a ...
'')
, style="text-align:center;", שגר מרים Root of the tree ''Shejar Maryam''
, style="text-align:center;", ---
, -
, style="background:Navajowhite; color:blue; text-align:center; width:65px", Menahot 10:7Also in Mishnah ''Kila'im'' 1:1.
, style="background:Navajowhite; text-align:center; width:65px", שבולת שועל
, style="text-align:center;", סנבלת אלת'עלב Fox's spike
, style="text-align:center;", סנבל אלת'עלב (שעיר ברי) Wild barley (''
Hordeum spontaneum
''Hordeum spontaneum'', commonly known as wild barley or spontaneous barley, is the wild form of the grass in the Family (biology), family Poaceae that gave rise to the cereal barley (''Hordeum vulgare''). Domestication is thought to have occurr ...
'')
, style="text-align:center;", סיקל"א Rye (''
Secale cereale
Rye (''Secale cereale'') is a grass grown extensively as a grain, a cover crop and a forage crop. It is a member of the wheat tribe (Triticeae) and is closely related to both wheat (''Triticum'') and barley (genus ''Hordeum''). Rye grain i ...
Melilotus
''Melilotus'', known as melilot, sweet clover, and kumoniga (from the Cumans),Bulgarian Folk Customs, Mercia MacDermott, pg 27 is a genus in the family Fabaceae (the same family that also includes the ''Trifolium'' clovers). Members are known ...
Anemone coronaria
''Anemone coronaria'', the poppy anemone, Spanish marigold, or windflower, is a species of flowering plant in the buttercup family Ranunculaceae, native to the Mediterranean region.
Description
''Anemone coronaria'' is a herbaceous pere ...
Avena
''Avena'' is a genus of Eurasian and African plants in the grass family. Collectively known as the oats, they include some species which have been cultivated for thousands of years as a food source for humans and livestock. They are widespre ...
'' or '' Aegilops''
, style="text-align:center;", אספילת"א Spelt (''
Triticum spelta
Spelt (''Triticum spelta''), also known as dinkel wheat or hulled wheat, is a species of wheat that has been cultivated since approximately 5000 BC.
Spelt was an important staple food in parts of Europe from the Bronze Age to medieval times. No ...
Pisum sativum
The pea is most commonly the small spherical seed or the seed-pod of the flowering plant species ''Pisum sativum''. Each pod contains several peas, which can be green or yellow. Botanically, pea pods are fruit, since they contain seeds and d ...
Bambusa vulgaris
''Bambusa vulgaris'', common bamboo, is an open-clump type bamboo species. It is native to Indochina and to the province of Yunnan in southern China, but it has been widely cultivated in many other places and has become naturalized in several r ...
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter ...
Cichorium endivia
''Cichorium endivia'' is a species of flowering plant belonging to the genus '' Cichorium'', which is widely cultivated as one of the species of similar bitter-leafed vegetables known as endive and escarole
Endive () is a leaf vegetable belon ...
) or Wild chicory ( Cichorium divaricatum)
, style="text-align:center;", קרד"ו (''cardo'' = Thistle) others say מרו"ו
, style="text-align:center;", ---
, -
, style="background:Navajowhite; color:blue; text-align:center; width:65px", Kila'im 1:3
, style="background:Navajowhite; text-align:center; width:65px", תרדין
, style="text-align:center;", מיני סלק Kinds of chard; white beet (''
Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris
Beta (, ; uppercase , lowercase , or cursive ; grc, βῆτα, bē̂ta or ell, βήτα, víta) is the second letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 2. In Modern Greek, it represents the voiced lab ...
''; ''Beta vulgaris, var. cicla'')
, style="text-align:center;", אלסלק (''
Beta vulgaris
''Beta vulgaris'' (beet) is a species of flowering plant in the subfamily Betoideae of the family Amaranthaceae. Economically, it is the most important crop of the large order Caryophyllales. It has several cultivar groups: the sugar beet, of gr ...
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter ...
: קרנביט (''qarnabiṭ'')
Cauliflower
Cauliflower is one of several vegetables in the species ''Brassica oleracea'' in the genus '' Brassica'', which is in the Brassicaceae (or mustard) family. It is an annual plant that reproduces by seed. Typically, only the head is eaten – t ...
, style="text-align:center;", ---
Occasionally, Nathan ben Abraham relates to the practical usages of plants in the Land of Israel and in
Greater Syria
Syria ( Hieroglyphic Luwian: 𔒂𔒠 ''Sura/i''; gr, Συρία) or Sham ( ar, ٱلشَّام, ash-Shām) is the name of a historical region located east of the Mediterranean Sea in Western Asia, broadly synonymous with the Levant. Other ...
, writing, for example, that either Judas tree florets ('' Cercis siliquastrum'') (
Judeo-Arabic
Judeo-Arabic dialects (, ; ; ) are ethnolects formerly spoken by Jews throughout the Arabic-speaking world. Under the ISO 639 international standard for language codes, Judeo-Arabic is classified as a macrolanguage under the code jrb, enco ...
Judeo-Arabic
Judeo-Arabic dialects (, ; ; ) are ethnolects formerly spoken by Jews throughout the Arabic-speaking world. Under the ISO 639 international standard for language codes, Judeo-Arabic is classified as a macrolanguage under the code jrb, enco ...
: אלבנפסג) were placed in flagons of wine to impart their flavor, while rose florets (''
Rosa
Rosa or De Rosa may refer to:
People
*Rosa (given name)
* Rosa (surname)
*Santa Rosa (female given name from Latin-a latinized variant of Rose)
Places
*223 Rosa, an asteroid
* Rosa, Alabama, a town, United States
* Rosa, Germany, in Thuringia, ...
'') were used to impart flavor to olive oil and to sesame seeds.
Modern Hebrew usages
In
Modern Hebrew
Modern Hebrew ( he, עברית חדשה, ''ʿivrít ḥadašá ', , '' lit.'' "Modern Hebrew" or "New Hebrew"), also known as Israeli Hebrew or Israeli, and generally referred to by speakers simply as Hebrew ( ), is the standard form of the He ...
nomenclature, some of the plant identifications have changed since
medieval times
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
. For example, the Modern Hebrew word for cucumber is ''melafefon'' (a word formerly used for "melon"). The word ''kishū’īm'' (formerly "cucumbers") is now applied to zucchini squash (''Cucurbita pepo var. cylindrica''), a plant native to the
New World
The term ''New World'' is often used to mean the majority of Earth's Western Hemisphere, specifically the Americas."America." ''The Oxford Companion to the English Language'' (). McArthur, Tom, ed., 1992. New York: Oxford University Press, p. ...
. In modern colloquial Hebrew, the word ''ḥazeret'' (formerly "lettuce") is now used to denote horseradish (''
Armoracia rusticana
Horseradish (''Armoracia rusticana'', syn. ''Cochlearia armoracia'') is a perennial plant of the family Brassicaceae (which also includes mustard, wasabi, broccoli, cabbage, and radish). It is a root vegetable, cultivated and used worldwide a ...
''). ''Karkūm'', formerly used in Hebrew to denote only
saffron
Saffron () is a spice derived from the flower of ''Crocus sativus'', commonly known as the "saffron crocus". The vivid crimson stigma (botany), stigma and stigma (botany)#style, styles, called threads, are collected and dried for use mainly ...
, is now used also for
turmeric
Turmeric () is a flowering plant, ''Curcuma longa'' (), of the ginger family, Zingiberaceae, the rhizomes of which are used in cooking. The plant is a perennial, rhizomatous, herbaceous plant native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast ...
. ''Lūf'' (formerly '' Arum palaestinum'') is now used in modern colloquial Hebrew to denote the broadleaf wild leek (''
Allium ampeloprasum
''Allium ampeloprasum'' is a member of the onion genus ''Allium''. The wild plant is commonly known as wild leek or broadleaf wild leek. Its native range is southern Europe to western Asia, but it is cultivated in many other places and has becom ...
''). Modern botanists in Israel now call Clover (''
Trifolium
Clover or trefoil are common names for plants of the genus ''Trifolium'' (from Latin ''tres'' 'three' + ''folium'' 'leaf'), consisting of about 300 species of flowering plants in the legume or pea family Fabaceae originating in Europe. The gen ...
'') by the name ''tiltan'', which word formerly meant "
fenugreek
Fenugreek (; ''Trigonella foenum-graecum'') is an annual plant in the family Fabaceae, with leaves consisting of three small obovate to oblong leaflets. It is cultivated worldwide as a semiarid crop. Its seeds and leaves are common ingredients ...
" (''Trigonella foenum-graecum''). Modern Hebrew now calls cork (''
Quercus suber
''Quercus suber'', commonly called the cork oak, is a medium-sized, evergreen oak tree in the section ''Quercus'' sect. ''Cerris''. It is the primary source of cork for wine bottle stoppers and other uses, such as cork flooring and as the core ...
'') by the name "sha'am," although in Rabbi Nathan's day it had the meaning of "bamboo." ''Afūnna'' (der. of ''afūnnin'') is now used in Modern Hebrew as a generic word for all kinds of
garden pea
The pea is most commonly the small spherical seed or the seed-pod of the flowering plant species ''Pisum sativum''. Each pod contains several peas, which can be green or yellow. Botanically, pea pods are fruit, since they contain seeds and d ...
s, when formerly it was used strictly for chickpeas (''
Cicer arietinum
The chickpea or chick pea (''Cicer arietinum'') is an annual legume of the family Fabaceae, subfamily Faboideae. Its different types are variously known as gram" or Bengal gram, garbanzo or garbanzo bean, or Egyptian pea. Chickpea seeds are high ...
''). Cauliflower is now called ''krūvīt'' in Modern Hebrew, but which formerly was known as ''therūḇtor''. In many cases, Arabic names are used to identify plants. Most Hebrew speakers will call the frothy relish made from
fenugreek
Fenugreek (; ''Trigonella foenum-graecum'') is an annual plant in the family Fabaceae, with leaves consisting of three small obovate to oblong leaflets. It is cultivated worldwide as a semiarid crop. Its seeds and leaves are common ingredients ...
by its Arabic name, ''ḥilbah''. So, too, the biblical hyssop, ''eizoḇ'', is now popularly called by its Arabic name, ''
zaatar
Za'atar ( ; ar, زَعْتَر, ) is a culinary herb or family of herbs. It is also the name of a spice mixture that includes the herb along with toasted sesame seeds, dried sumac, often salt, as well as other spices. As a family of related ...
''. The Arabic word ''sabōn'' which is now used for soap (''borit'') is related to the Aramaic word ''ṣap̄ona'' = ܨܦܘܢܐ (soap). In other cases, Eliezer Ben-Yehuda invented new words, such as ''ḥatzilīm'' ( egg-plants; aubergines), to take the place of Hebrew words long forgotten, but what Nathan ben Abraham understood as being called ''qīnras''.
Difficult words
Some referents of Hebrew words have become so entrenched in rabbinic disputes that it is now difficult to ascertain what their original meanings may have been, such as the adjective ''qamūr'' (
Hebrew
Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved ...
: קמור / קמורה), in Mishnah ''
Ohalot
ʾOhaloth (אוהלות, literally "Tents") is the second tractate of the Order of Tohorot in the Mishnah. It consists of eighteen chapters, which discuss the ritual impurity of corpses, and the peculiar quality they have to make all objects in th ...
'' 3:7, ''op. cit.'' 5:1 and ''Eruvin'' 8:10. Rabbi Nathan (''Ohalot'') explains the word as meaning "plastered," (such as with gypsum and which repels water), but
Maimonides
Musa ibn Maimon (1138–1204), commonly known as Maimonides (); la, Moses Maimonides and also referred to by the acronym Rambam ( he, רמב״ם), was a Sephardic Jewish philosopher who became one of the most prolific and influential Torah ...
explained the same word as meaning "dome-shaped." For one, the mouth of an earthenware oven which projected outside the house would be protected from the elements by virtue of its dome-like structure, while, for the other, because of its plastering. R.
Hai Gaon
Hai ben Sherira (Hebrew: האי/י בר שרירא) better known as Hai Gaon (Hebrew: האי/י גאון, חאיי גאון), was a medieval Jewish theologian, rabbi and scholar who served as Gaon of the Talmudic academy of Pumbedita during the ...
explained it differently, saying that ''qamūr'' was an opening f the oven or drain pipebuilt at its base near to the ground so that the influx of air will cause the fire to burn well, in the case of the oven, or allow for a drainage pipe to air out.
Modern discovery
The manuscript was retrieved in ca. 1927 by Rabbi Yihya al-Qafih, from the place used by the Jewish community in
Sana'a
Sanaa ( ar, صَنْعَاء, ' , Yemeni Arabic: ; Old South Arabian: 𐩮𐩬𐩲𐩥 ''Ṣnʿw''), also spelled Sana'a or Sana, is the capital and largest city in Yemen and the centre of Sanaa Governorate. The city is not part of the Gover ...
to bury old and worn-out sacred literature (''
genizah
A genizah (; , also ''geniza''; plural: ''genizot'' 'h''or ''genizahs'') is a storage area in a Jewish synagogue or cemetery designated for the temporary storage of worn-out Hebrew-language books and papers on religious topics prior to proper ceme ...
''), within the Jewish cemetery itself on the outskirts of the city. Three copies were made of the original manuscript, before it was sold to a certain Shelomo Halevi Busani (later of Tel-Aviv), who, in turn, sold the manuscript to the Schechter Library in New York. Today, the original manuscript is housed at the
Jewish Theological Seminary of America
The Jewish Theological Seminary (JTS) is a Conservative Jewish education organization in New York City, New York. It is one of the academic and spiritual centers of Conservative Judaism and a major center for academic scholarship in Jewish studie ...
, under JTS Rab.1492. One of the three remaining copies, copied in 1930 by Qafih's grandson, was acquired by the Hebrew University library, from which a comprehensive study was made of the text by Professor Simcha Assaf who published his findings in the periodical ''Kiryat Sefer'', in 1933.
The
British Museum
The British Museum is a public museum dedicated to human history, art and culture located in the Bloomsbury area of London. Its permanent collection of eight million works is among the largest and most comprehensive in existence. It docum ...
possesses a partial copy of Nathan ben Abraham's Judeo-Arabic commentary of the Mishnah (with only the Mishnaic Orders of ''Zera'im'', ''Mo'ed'' and ''Neziqin'').
Among the manuscripts and incunabula collected by
David Solomon Sassoon
David Solomon Sassoon (1880–1942) (also known as "David Suleiman Sassoon"), was a bibliophile and grandson of 19th Baghdadi Jewish community leader David Sassoon (treasurer), David Sassoon.
Sassoon travelled extensively with the sole intent o ...
is a two-page
Judeo-Arabic
Judeo-Arabic dialects (, ; ; ) are ethnolects formerly spoken by Jews throughout the Arabic-speaking world. Under the ISO 639 international standard for language codes, Judeo-Arabic is classified as a macrolanguage under the code jrb, enco ...
copy of the Introduction taken from Rabbi Nathan's commentary, believed to have been singled-out because of its more profound nature.Sassoon, D.S. (1932), pp. 1061–1062. Sassoon dated the copy to the 15th-century, but not knowing the full nature of the work, thought it to be an Introduction to the Talmud, and which he surmised was written by Joseph ben Judah ibn ʿAḳnin. Rabbi Yosef Qafih has provided a Hebrew translation of the Introduction in the Mishnah published by ''El ha-Meqorot''.
Publications
The earliest modern-day printing of Rabbi Nathan's work came in 1955, when the ''El Meqorot'' publishers of Jerusalem printed the Hebrew translation of Rabbi Nathan's commentary, yet only as a supplement to other commentaries. In 1958, the same publishers published a single edition, edited by Mordechai Yehuda Leib Sachs. A third edition was published by them in 1965. The
Harry Fischel Institute Harry Fischel Institute for Talmudic Research ("Machon Harry Fischel") is a Jewish theological institute in Jerusalem that specializes in training dayanim (religious court judges). The institute was founded in 1931 by the American philanthropist H ...
in Jerusalem published the Mishnaic order of ''Zera'im''. In 1973, ''Me'orot'' publishers of Jerusalem published an edition of the commentary, although it too was not an exclusive edition, but incorporated other commentaries.
Wild edible plants of Israel / Palestine
Wild edible plants in the geographical region known as Israel and Palestine, like in other countries, have been used to sustain life in periods of scarcity and famine, or else simply used as a supplementary food source for additional nourishmen ...
References
Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*--()
*
*
*
*
*(= ''Kiryat Sefer'', X 934
*
*
*
*
* Danzig, Nahman (1998). ''Catalogue of Fragments of Halakhah and Midrash from the Cairo Genizah in the E.N. Adler Collection of the Library of JTS'': the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, New York 1998, p. 47
*
* Fox, Menahem Zvi (1994). ''Ha-mishnah be-teman, kettuv-yad miperush rav nathan av ha-yeshivah'', Assufot (Year Book), pp. 161–167
*
* Friedman, Mordechai A. (1990b). "Masa u-matan bayn hakham miteman le-rabbi avraham ben ha-rambam 'al kesef ha-ketubbah ve-'al samkhut ha-masoret", ''Te'udah'' (14), pp. 139–192
*
* Gil, Moshe (1983). ''Eretz yisrael bit'kufah ha-muslamit ha-rishonah'' (634–1099) alestine during the First Muslim Period (634–1099) Tel-Aviv, pp. 582–583
* (Available online, at HebrewBooks.org ''The Geonic Commentary on Seder Taharot'' - vol. 1''The Geonic Commentary on Seder Taharot'' - vol. 2
*
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