List of basic chemistry topics
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is provided as an overview of and topical guide to chemistry:
Chemistry Chemistry is the science, scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a natural science that covers the Chemical element, elements that make up matter to the chemical compound, compounds made of atoms, molecules and ions ...
is the science of atomic matter (matter that is composed of chemical elements), especially its chemical reactions, but also including its properties, structure, composition, behavior, and changes as they relate to the chemical reactions. Chemistry is centrally concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms, and particularly with the properties of chemical bonds.


Summary of chemistry

Chemistry can be described as all of the following: * An academic discipline – one with academic departments, curricula and degrees; national and international societies; and specialized journals. * A scientific field (a branch of science) – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. Such a field will usually be represented by one or more scientific journals, where peer reviewed research is published. There are several chemistry-related scientific journals. ** A
natural science Natural science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description, understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and repeatab ...
– one that seeks to elucidate the rules that govern the natural world using
empirical Empirical evidence for a proposition is evidence, i.e. what supports or counters this proposition, that is constituted by or accessible to sense experience or experimental procedure. Empirical evidence is of central importance to the sciences and ...
and scientific method. *** A physical science – one that studies non-living systems. *** A biological science – one that studies the role of chemicals and chemical processes in living organisms. ''See
Outline of biochemistry The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to biochemistry: Biochemistry – study of chemical processes in living organisms, including living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes ...
.''


Branches of chemistry

* Physical chemistry – study of the physical and fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include chemical thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, electrochemistry,
statistical mechanics In physics, statistical mechanics is a mathematical framework that applies statistical methods and probability theory to large assemblies of microscopic entities. It does not assume or postulate any natural laws, but explains the macroscopic be ...
,
spectroscopy Spectroscopy is the field of study that measures and interprets the electromagnetic spectra that result from the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter as a function of the wavelength or frequency of the radiation. Matter wa ...
, and more recently, astrochemistry. Physical chemistry has large overlap with molecular physics. Physical chemistry involves the use of
infinitesimal calculus Calculus, originally called infinitesimal calculus or "the calculus of infinitesimals", is the mathematical study of continuous change, in the same way that geometry is the study of shape, and algebra is the study of generalizations of arithm ...
in deriving equations. It is usually associated with
quantum chemistry Quantum chemistry, also called molecular quantum mechanics, is a branch of physical chemistry focused on the application of quantum mechanics to chemical systems, particularly towards the quantum-mechanical calculation of electronic contributions ...
and theoretical chemistry. Physical chemistry is a distinct discipline from chemical physics, but again, there is very strong overlap. ** Chemical kinetics – study of rates of chemical processes. ** Chemical physics – investigates physicochemical phenomena using techniques from atomic and molecular physics and condensed matter physics; it is the branch of physics that studies chemical processes. ** Electrochemistry – branch of chemistry that studies chemical reactions which take place in a solution at the interface of an electron conductor (the electrode: a metal or a semiconductor) and an ionic conductor (the electrolyte), and which involve electron transfer between the electrode and the electrolyte or species in solution. **
Femtochemistry Femtochemistry is the area of physical chemistry that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales (approximately 10−15 seconds or one femtosecond, hence the name) in order to study the very act of atoms within molecules (reactants ...
– area of physical chemistry that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales, approximately 10−15 seconds (one femtosecond). ** Geochemistry – chemical study of the mechanisms behind major systems studied in geology. ** Photochemistry – study of chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption of light by atoms or molecules. **
Quantum chemistry Quantum chemistry, also called molecular quantum mechanics, is a branch of physical chemistry focused on the application of quantum mechanics to chemical systems, particularly towards the quantum-mechanical calculation of electronic contributions ...
– branch of chemistry whose primary focus is the application of quantum mechanics in physical models and experiments of chemical systems. ** Solid-state chemistry – study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids. **
Spectroscopy Spectroscopy is the field of study that measures and interprets the electromagnetic spectra that result from the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter as a function of the wavelength or frequency of the radiation. Matter wa ...
– study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy. **
Stereochemistry Stereochemistry, a subdiscipline of chemistry, involves the study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms that form the structure of molecules and their manipulation. The study of stereochemistry focuses on the relationships between stereois ...
– study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms that form the structure of molecules **
Surface science Surface science is the study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solid–liquid interfaces, solid–gas interfaces, solid–vacuum interfaces, and liquid–gas interfaces. It includes the fiel ...
– study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solid–liquid interfaces, solid–gas interfaces, solid–vacuum interfaces, and liquid-gas interfaces. ** Thermochemistry –The branch of chemistry that studies the relation between chemical action and the amount of heat absorbed or generated. *** Calorimetry – The study of heat changes in physical and chemical processes. * Organic chemistry (
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) – study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and
reactions Reaction may refer to a process or to a response to an action, event, or exposure: Physics and chemistry *Chemical reaction *Nuclear reaction *Reaction (physics), as defined by Newton's third law *Chain reaction (disambiguation). Biology and me ...
of organic compounds. An organic compound is defined as any compound based on a carbon skeleton. ** Biochemistry – study of the chemicals, chemical reactions and
chemical interaction Interaction is action that occurs between two or more objects, with broad use in philosophy and the sciences. It may refer to: Science * Interaction hypothesis, a theory of second language acquisition * Interaction (statistics) * Interactions o ...
s that take place in living organisms. Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related, as in medicinal chemistry or
neurochemistry Neurochemistry is the study of chemicals, including neurotransmitters and other molecules such as psychopharmaceuticals and neuropeptides, that control and influence the physiology of the nervous system. This particular field within neuroscience e ...
. Biochemistry is also associated with molecular biology and genetics. ***
Neurochemistry Neurochemistry is the study of chemicals, including neurotransmitters and other molecules such as psychopharmaceuticals and neuropeptides, that control and influence the physiology of the nervous system. This particular field within neuroscience e ...
– study of neurochemicals; including transmitters, peptides, proteins, lipids, sugars, and nucleic acids; their interactions, and the roles they play in forming, maintaining, and modifying the nervous system. ***Molecular biochemistry and
genetic engineering Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the modification and manipulation of an organism's genes using technology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including t ...
–an area of biochemistry and molecular biology that studies the genes, their heritage and their expression. ** Bioorganic chemistry – combines organic chemistry and biochemistry toward biology. **
Biophysical chemistry Biophysical chemistry is a physical science that uses the concepts of physics and physical chemistry for the study of biological systems. The most common feature of the research in this subject is to seek explanation of the various phenomena in ...
– is a physical science that uses the concepts of physics and physical chemistry for the study of biological systems. ** Medicinal chemistry – discipline which applies chemistry for medical or drug related purposes. **
Organometallic chemistry Organometallic chemistry is the study of organometallic compounds, chemical compounds containing at least one chemical bond between a carbon atom of an organic molecule and a metal, including alkali, alkaline earth, and transition metals, and so ...
– is the study of organometallic compounds, chemical compounds containing at least one chemical bond between a carbon atom of an organic molecule and a metal, including alkaline, alkaline earth, and transition metals, and sometimes broadened to include metalloids like boron, silicon, and tin. ** Physical organic chemistry – study of the interrelationships between structure and reactivity in organic molecules. ** Polymer chemistry – multidisciplinary science that deals with the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules. **
Click chemistry In chemical synthesis, click chemistry is a class of biocompatible small molecule reactions commonly used in bioconjugation, allowing the joining of substrates of choice with specific biomolecules. Click chemistry is not a single specific reaction ...
– "click" chemistry is a class of biocompatible small molecule reactions commonly used in bioconjugation, allowing the joining of substrates of choice with specific biomolecules. *
Inorganic chemistry Inorganic chemistry deals with synthesis and behavior of inorganic and organometallic compounds. This field covers chemical compounds that are not carbon-based, which are the subjects of organic chemistry. The distinction between the two disci ...
– study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of
organometallic chemistry Organometallic chemistry is the study of organometallic compounds, chemical compounds containing at least one chemical bond between a carbon atom of an organic molecule and a metal, including alkali, alkaline earth, and transition metals, and so ...
. ** Bioinorganic chemistry – is a field that examines the role of metals in biology. ** Cluster chemistry ** Materials chemistry – preparation, characterization, and understanding of substances with a useful function. The field is a new breadth of study in graduate programs, and it integrates elements from all classical areas of chemistry with a focus on fundamental issues that are unique to materials. Primary systems of study include the chemistry of condensed phases (solids, liquids, polymers) and
interfaces Interface or interfacing may refer to: Academic journals * Interface (journal), ''Interface'' (journal), by the Electrochemical Society * ''Interface, Journal of Applied Linguistics'', now merged with ''ITL International Journal of Applied Lin ...
between different phases. * Nuclear chemistry – study of how subatomic particles come together and make nuclei. Modern Transmutation is a large component of nuclear chemistry, and the table of nuclides is an important result and tool for this field. * Analytical chemistry – analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their
chemical composition A chemical composition specifies the identity, arrangement, and ratio of the elements making up a compound. Chemical formulas can be used to describe the relative amounts of elements present in a compound. For example, the chemical formula for ...
and
structure A structure is an arrangement and organization of interrelated elements in a material object or system, or the object or system so organized. Material structures include man-made objects such as buildings and machines and natural objects such as ...
. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry. *Other ** Astrochemistry – study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation. *** Cosmochemistry – study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions. **
Computational chemistry Computational chemistry is a branch of chemistry that uses computer simulation to assist in solving chemical problems. It uses methods of theoretical chemistry, incorporated into computer programs, to calculate the structures and properties of m ...
** Environmental chemistry – study of chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur diverse aspects of the environment such the air, soil, and water. It also studies the effects of human activity on the environment. ** Green chemistry is a philosophy of chemical research and engineering that encourages the design of products and processes that minimize the use and generation of hazardous substances. ** Supramolecular chemistry – refers to the domain of chemistry beyond that of molecules and focuses on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components. ** Theoretical chemistry – study of chemistry via fundamental theoretical reasoning (usually within
mathematics Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in modern mathematics ...
or physics). In particular the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is called
quantum chemistry Quantum chemistry, also called molecular quantum mechanics, is a branch of physical chemistry focused on the application of quantum mechanics to chemical systems, particularly towards the quantum-mechanical calculation of electronic contributions ...
. Since the end of the Second World War, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of
computational chemistry Computational chemistry is a branch of chemistry that uses computer simulation to assist in solving chemical problems. It uses methods of theoretical chemistry, incorporated into computer programs, to calculate the structures and properties of m ...
, which is the art of developing and applying computer programs for solving chemical problems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with (theoretical and experimental)
condensed matter physics Condensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic and microscopic physical properties of matter, especially the solid and liquid phases which arise from electromagnetic forces between atoms. More generally, the sub ...
and molecular physics. ** Wet chemistry – is a form of analytical chemistry that uses classical methods such as observation to analyze materials usually in liquid phase. ** Agrochemistry – study and application of both chemistry and biochemistry for agricultural production, the processing of raw products into foods and beverages, and environmental monitoring and remediation. ** Atmospheric chemistry – branch of atmospheric science which studies the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets. ** Chemical engineering – branch of engineering that applies the physical sciences (e.g., chemistry and physics) and/or life sciences (e.g., biology, microbiology and biochemistry) together with mathematics and economics to processes that convert raw materials or chemicals into more useful or valuable forms. **
Chemical biology Chemical biology is a scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry and biology. The discipline involves the application of chemical techniques, analysis, and often small molecules produced through synthetic chemistry, to the study and ma ...
– scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry and biology and involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to analyze and manipulation of biological systems. **
Chemo-informatics Cheminformatics (also known as chemoinformatics) refers to use of physical chemistry theory with computer and information science techniques—so called "''in silico''" techniques—in application to a range of descriptive and prescriptive problem ...
– use of computer and informational techniques applied to a range of problems in the field of chemistry. ** Flow chemistry – study of chemical reactions in continuous flow, not as stationary batches, in industry and macro processing equipment. **
Immunohistochemistry Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is the most common application of immunostaining. It involves the process of selectively identifying antigens (proteins) in cells of a tissue section by exploiting the principle of antibodies binding specifically to an ...
– involves the process of detecting antigens (e.g., proteins) in cells of a tissue section by exploiting the principle of antibodies binding specifically to antigens in biological tissues. ** Immunochemistry – is a branch of chemistry that involves the study of the reactions and components on the immune system. ** Chemical oceanography – study of ocean chemistry: the behavior of the chemical elements within the Earth's oceans ** Materials science – is an interdisciplinary field investigating the relationship between the structure of materials at atomic or molecular scales and their macroscopic properties. ** Mathematical chemistry – area of study engaged in novel applications of mathematics to chemistry. It concerns itself principally with the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena. ** Mechanochemistry – coupling of mechanical and chemical phenomena on a molecular scale and can be seen as a coupling of chemistry and mechanical engineering. ** Molecular biology – study of interactions between the various systems of a cell. It overlaps with biochemistry. ** Molecular mechanics – applies classical mechanics to model molecular systems. **
Nanotechnology Nanotechnology, also shortened to nanotech, is the use of matter on an atomic, molecular, and supramolecular scale for industrial purposes. The earliest, widespread description of nanotechnology referred to the particular technological goal o ...
– study and application of matter that is at an atomic and molecular scale. This broad field interacts with chemistry at such scales. **
Petrochemistry Petrochemicals (sometimes abbreviated as petchems) are the chemical products obtained from petroleum by refining. Some chemical compounds made from petroleum are also obtained from other fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas, or renewable sou ...
– study of the transformation of petroleum and natural gas into useful products or raw materials. **
Pharmacology Pharmacology is a branch of medicine, biology and pharmaceutical sciences concerned with drug or medication action, where a drug may be defined as any artificial, natural, or endogenous (from within the body) molecule which exerts a biochemica ...
– branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action along with the chemical effects. **
Phytochemistry Phytochemistry is the study of phytochemicals, which are chemicals derived from plants. Phytochemists strive to describe the structures of the large number of secondary metabolites found in plants, the functions of these compounds in human and ...
– study of phytochemicals which come from plants. ** Radiochemistry – chemistry of radioactive materials. ** Sonochemistry – study of effect of sonic waves and wave properties on chemical systems. ** Synthetic chemistry – study of chemical synthesis. ** Toxicology – study of the adverse effects of chemical substances on living organism and the practice of diagnosing and treating exposures to toxins and toxicants.


History of chemistry

History of chemistry The history of chemistry represents a time span from ancient history to the present. By 1000 BC, civilizations used technologies that would eventually form the basis of the various branches of chemistry. Examples include the discovery of fire, e ...
* Precursors to chemistry ** Alchemy (
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) ***
History of alchemy Alchemy (from Arabic: ''al-kīmiyā''; from Ancient Greek: χυμεία, ''khumeía'') is an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition that was historically practiced in China, India, the Muslim world, ...
* History of the branches of chemistry **
History of analytical chemistry Analytical chemistry studies and uses instruments and methods to separate, identify, and quantify matter. In practice, separation, identification or quantification may constitute the entire analysis or be combined with another method. Separati ...
– history of the study of the separation, identification, and quantification of the chemical components of natural and artificial materials. **
History of astrochemistry History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation. ***
History of cosmochemistry Cosmochemistry (from Greek κόσμος ''kósmos'', "universe" and χημεία ''khemeía'') or chemical cosmology is the study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions. This is done ...
– history of the study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions **
History of atmospheric chemistry Atmospheric chemistry is a branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. It is a multidisciplinary approach of research and draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteorol ...
– history of the branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. It is a multidisciplinary field of research and draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteorology, computer modeling, oceanography, geology and volcanology and other disciplines **
History of biochemistry The history of biochemistry can be said to have started with the ancient Greeks who were interested in the composition and processes of life, although biochemistry as a specific scientific discipline has its beginning around the early 19th centur ...
– history of the study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes. *** History of agrochemistry – history of the study of both chemistry and biochemistry which are important in agricultural production, the processing of raw products into foods and beverages, and in environmental monitoring and remediation. ***
History of bioinorganic chemistry Bioinorganic chemistry is a field that examines the role of metals in biology. Bioinorganic chemistry includes the study of both natural phenomena such as the behavior of metalloproteins as well as artificially introduced metals, including those t ...
– history of the examines the role of metals in biology. ***
History of bioorganic chemistry History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the rapidly growing scientific discipline that combines organic chemistry and biochemistry. ***
History of biophysical chemistry History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the new branch of chemistry that covers a broad spectrum of research activities involving biological systems. ***
History of environmental chemistry History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. ***
History of immunochemistry History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the branch of chemistry that involves the study of the reactions and components on the immune system. ***
History of medicinal chemistry History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the discipline at the intersection of chemistry, especially synthetic organic chemistry, and pharmacology and various other biological specialties, where they are involved with design, chemical synthesis and development for market of pharmaceutical agents (drugs). ***
History of pharmacology The history of pharmacy as an independent science dates back to the first third of the 19th century. Before then, pharmacy evolved from antiquity as part of medicine. The history of pharmacy coincides well with the history of medicine, but it's imp ...
– history of the branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action. ***
History of natural product chemistry History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the chemical compound or substance produced by a living organism – history of the found in nature that usually has a pharmacological or biological activity for use in pharmaceutical drug discovery and drug design. ***
History of neurochemistry Neurochemistry is the study of chemicals, including neurotransmitters and other molecules such as psychopharmaceuticals and neuropeptides, that control and influence the physiology of the nervous system. This particular field within neuroscience ...
– history of the specific study of neurochemicals, which include neurotransmitters and other molecules such as neuro-active drugs that influence neuron function. **
History of computational chemistry Computational chemistry is a branch of chemistry that uses computer simulation to assist in solving chemical problems. It uses methods of theoretical chemistry, incorporated into computer programs, to calculate the structures and properties of mol ...
– history of the branch of chemistry that uses principles of computer science to assist in solving chemical problems. ***
History of chemo-informatics History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the use of computer and informational techniques, applied to a range of problems in the field of chemistry. ***
History of molecular mechanics History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the uses Newtonian mechanics to model molecular systems. **
History of Flavor chemistry History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the someone who uses chemistry to engineer artificial and natural flavors. **
History of Flow chemistry History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the chemical reaction is run in a continuously flowing stream rather than in batch production. **
History of geochemistry Geochemistry is the science that uses the tools and principles of chemistry to explain the mechanisms behind major geological systems such as the Earth's crust and its oceans. The realm of geochemistry extends beyond the Earth, encompassing the ...
– history of the study of the mechanisms behind major geological systems using chemistry ***
History of aqueous geochemistry History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the study of the role of various elements in watersheds, including copper, sulfur, mercury, and how elemental fluxes are exchanged through atmospheric-terrestrial-aquatic interactions ***
History of isotope geochemistry History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the study of the relative and absolute concentrations of the elements and their isotopes using chemistry and geology ***
History of ocean chemistry History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the studies the chemistry of marine environments including the influences of different variables. ***
History of organic geochemistry History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the study of the impacts and processes that organisms have had on Earth ***
History of regional, environmental and exploration geochemistry History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the study of the spatial variation in the chemical composition of materials at the surface of the Earth **
History of inorganic chemistry History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of inorganic compounds. **
History of nuclear chemistry Nuclear chemistry is the sub-field of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes, and transformations in the nuclei of atoms, such as nuclear transmutation and nuclear properties. It is the chemistry of radioactive elements such as t ...
– history of the subfield of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes and nuclear properties. ***
History of radiochemistry History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the History of writing#Inventions of writing, invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbr ...
– history of the chemistry of radioactive materials, where radioactive isotopes of elements are used to study the properties and chemical reactions of non-radioactive isotopes (often within radiochemistry the absence of radioactivity leads to a substance being described as being inactive as the isotopes are stable). ** History of organic chemistry – history of the study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives. ***
History of petrochemistry History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the branch of chemistry that studies the transformation of crude oil (petroleum) and natural gas into useful products or raw materials. **
History of organometallic chemistry Organometallic chemistry is the study of organometallic compounds, chemical compounds containing at least one chemical bond between a carbon atom of an organic molecule and a metal, including alkali, alkaline earth, and transition metals, and so ...
– history of the study of chemical compounds containing bonds between carbon and a metal. **
History of photochemistry Photochemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the chemical effects of light. Generally, this term is used to describe a chemical reaction caused by absorption of ultraviolet (wavelength from 100 to 400  nm), visible light (400– ...
– history of the study of chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption of light by atoms or molecules.. ** History of physical chemistry – history of the study of macroscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of physical laws and concepts. ***
History of chemical kinetics History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the study of rates of chemical processes. ***
History of chemical thermodynamics Chemical thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics. Chemical thermodynamics involves not only laboratory measurem ...
– history of the study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics. ***
History of electrochemistry Electrochemistry, a branch of chemistry, went through several changes during its evolution from early principles related to magnets in the early 16th and 17th centuries, to complex theories involving conductivity, electric charge and mathematical ...
– history of the branch of chemistry that studies chemical reactions which take place in a solution at the interface of an electron conductor (a metal or a semiconductor) and an ionic conductor (the electrolyte), and which involve electron transfer between the electrode and the electrolyte or species in solution. ***
History of Femtochemistry History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the Femtochemistry is the science that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales, approximately 10−15 seconds (one femtosecond, hence the name). ***
History of mathematical chemistry History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the area of research engaged in novel applications of mathematics to chemistry; it concerns itself principally with the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena. ***
History of mechanochemistry History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the coupling of the mechanical and the chemical phenomena on a molecular scale and includes mechanical breakage, chemical behaviour of mechanically stressed solids (e.g., stress-corrosion cracking), tribology, polymer degradation under shear, cavitation-related phenomena (e.g., sonochemistry and sonoluminescence), shock wave chemistry and physics, and even the burgeoning field of
molecular machine A molecular machine, nanite, or nanomachine is a molecular component that produces quasi-mechanical movements (output) in response to specific stimuli (input). In cellular biology, macromolecular machines frequently perform tasks essential for l ...
s. ***
History of physical organic chemistry History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the study of the interrelationships between structure and reactivity in organic molecules. ***
History of quantum chemistry Quantum chemistry, also called molecular quantum mechanics, is a branch of physical chemistry focused on the application of quantum mechanics to chemical systems, particularly towards the quantum-mechanical calculation of electronic contributions ...
– history of the branch of chemistry whose primary focus is the application of quantum mechanics in physical models and experiments of chemical systems. ***
History of sonochemistry History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the study of the effect of sonic waves and wave properties on chemical systems. ***
History of stereochemistry History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms within molecules. ***
History of supramolecular chemistry Supramolecular chemistry refers to the branch of chemistry concerning chemical systems composed of a discrete number of molecules. The strength of the forces responsible for spatial organization of the system range from weak intermolecular forces ...
– history of the area of chemistry beyond the molecules and focuses on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components. ***
History of thermochemistry Thermochemistry is the study of the heat energy which is associated with chemical reactions and/or phase changes such as melting and boiling. A reaction may release or absorb energy, and a phase change may do the same. Thermochemistry focuses on ...
– history of the study of the energy and heat associated with chemical reactions and/or physical transformations. **
History of phytochemistry History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the strict sense of the word the study of phytochemicals. **
History of polymer chemistry Polymer chemistry is a sub-discipline of chemistry that focuses on the structures of chemicals, chemical synthesis, and Chemical property, chemical and physical properties of polymers and macromolecules. The principles and methods used within poly ...
– history of the multidisciplinary science that deals with the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules. ** History of solid-state chemistry – history of the study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids ** History of multidisciplinary fields involving chemistry: ***
History of chemical biology History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry and biology that involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to the study and manipulation of biological systems. *** History of chemical engineering – history of the branch of engineering that deals with physical science (e.g., chemistry and physics), and life sciences (e.g., biology, microbiology and biochemistry) with mathematics and economics, to the process of converting raw materials or chemicals into more useful or valuable forms. ***
History of chemical oceanography History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the study of the behavior of the chemical elements within the Earth's oceans. ***
History of chemical physics History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the History of writing#Inventions of writing, invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbr ...
– history of the branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics. ***
History of materials science Materials science has shaped the development of civilizations since the dawn of mankind. Better materials for tools and weapons has allowed mankind to spread and conquer, and advancements in material processing like steel and aluminum production co ...
– history of the interdisciplinary field applying the properties of matter to various areas of science and engineering. ***
History of nanotechnology The history of nanotechnology traces the development of the concepts and experimental work falling under the broad category of nanotechnology. Although nanotechnology is a relatively recent development in scientific research, the development of ...
– history of the study of manipulating matter on an atomic and molecular scale ***
History of oenology History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the science and study of all aspects of wine and winemaking except vine-growing and grape-harvesting, which is a subfield called viticulture. *** History of spectroscopy – history of the study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy ***
History of surface science Surface science is the study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solid– liquid interfaces, solid–gas interfaces, solid–vacuum interfaces, and liquid–gas interfaces. It includes the fi ...
– history of the Surface science is the study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solid–liquid interfaces, solid–gas interfaces, solid–vacuum interfaces, and liquid–gas interfaces. * History of chemicals ** History of chemical elements ***
History of carbon Carbon () is a chemical element with the symbol C and atomic number 6. It is nonmetallic and tetravalent—its atom making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds. It belongs to group 14 of the periodic table. Carbon mak ...
***
History of hydrogen Hydrogen is the chemical element with the symbol H and atomic number 1. Hydrogen is the lightest element. At standard conditions hydrogen is a gas of diatomic molecules having the formula . It is colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic ...
**** Timeline of hydrogen technologies ***
History of oxygen Oxygen is the chemical element with the symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group in the periodic table, a highly reactive nonmetal, and an oxidizing agent that readily forms oxides with most elements as w ...
** History of chemical products ***
History of aspirin Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) is a novel organic compound that does not occur in nature, and was first successfully synthesised in 1899. In 1897, scientists at the drug and dye firm Bayer began investigating acetylated organic compounds as pos ...
*** History of cosmetics ***
History of gunpowder Gunpowder is the first explosive to have been developed. Popularly listed as one of the "Four Great Inventions" of China, it was invented during the late Tang dynasty (9th century) while the earliest recorded chemical formula for gunpowder d ...
*** History of pharmaceutical drugs ***
History of vitamins A vitamin is an organic molecule (or a set of molecules closely related chemically, i.e. vitamers) that is an essential micronutrient that an organism needs in small quantities for the proper functioning of its metabolism. Essential nut ...
* History of chemical processes ** History of manufactured gas ***
History of the Haber process The history of the Haber process begins with the invention of the Haber process at the dawn of the twentieth century. The process allows the economical fixation of atmospheric dinitrogen in the form of ammonia, which in turn allows for the ind ...
* History of the chemical industry ** History of the petroleum industry ** History of the pharmaceutical industry *
History of the periodic table The periodic table is an arrangement of the chemical elements, structured by their atomic number, electron configuration and recurring chemical properties. In the basic form, elements are presented in order of increasing atomic number, in the r ...


Chemicals

*
Dictionary of chemical formulas This is a list of common chemical compounds with chemical formulae and CAS numbers, indexed by formula.This complements alternative listing at list of inorganic compounds. There is no complete list of chemical compounds since by nature the list ...
*
List of biomolecules This is a list of articles that describe particular biomolecules or types of biomolecules. A For substances with an A- or α- prefix such as α-amylase, please see the parent page (in this case Amylase). * A23187 (Calcimycin, Calcium Ionopho ...
*
List of inorganic compounds Although most compounds are referred to by their IUPAC systematic names (following IUPAC nomenclature), traditional names have also been kept where they are in wide use or of significant historical interests. A Ac * Actinium(III) chloride ...
*
Periodic table The periodic table, also known as the periodic table of the (chemical) elements, is a rows and columns arrangement of the chemical elements. It is widely used in chemistry, physics, and other sciences, and is generally seen as an icon of ch ...


Atomic Theory

Atomic theory * Atomic models ** Atomism – Natural philosophy that theorizes that the world is composed of indivisible pieces. ** Plum pudding model ** Rutherford model ** Bohr model


Thermochemistry

Thermochemistry


Terminology

* Thermochemistry – * Chemical kinetics – the study of the rates of chemical reactions and investigates how different experimental conditions can influence the speed of a chemical reaction and yield information about the reaction's mechanism and transition states, as well as the construction of mathematical models that can describe the characteristics of a chemical reaction. * Exothermic –a process or reaction in which the system release energy to its surroundings in the form of heat. They are denoted by negative heat flow. * Endothermic –a process or reaction in which the system absorbs energy from its surroundings in the form of heat. They are denoted by positive heat flow. * Thermochemical equation – *
Enthalpy change Enthalpy , a property of a thermodynamic system, is the sum of the system's internal energy and the product of its pressure and volume. It is a state function used in many measurements in chemical, biological, and physical systems at a constant p ...
– internal energy of a system plus the product of pressure and volume. Its change in a system is equal to the heat brought to the system at constant pressure. *
Enthalpy of reaction The standard enthalpy of reaction (denoted \Delta_ H^\ominus or \Delta H_^\ominus) for a chemical reaction is the difference between total reactant and total product molar enthalpies, calculated for substances in their standard states. This can i ...
– * Temperature – an objective comparative measure of heat. * Calorimeter – an object used for calorimetry, or the process of measuring the heat of chemical reactions or physical changes as well as heat capacity. * Heat – A form of energy associated with the kinetic energy of atoms or molecules and capable of being transmitted through solid and fluid media by conduction, through fluid media by convection, and through empty space by radiation. * Joule – a unit of energy. *
Calorie The calorie is a unit of energy. For historical reasons, two main definitions of "calorie" are in wide use. The large calorie, food calorie, or kilogram calorie was originally defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of on ...
– * Specific heat – * Specific heat capacity – * Latent heat – *
Heat of fusion In thermodynamics, the enthalpy of fusion of a substance, also known as (latent) heat of fusion, is the change in its enthalpy resulting from providing energy, typically heat, to a specific quantity of the substance to change its state from a so ...
– *
Heat of vaporization The enthalpy of vaporization (symbol ), also known as the (latent) heat of vaporization or heat of evaporation, is the amount of energy (enthalpy) that must be added to a liquid substance to transform a quantity of that substance into a gas. T ...
– * Collision theory – * Activation energy – *
Activated complex In chemistry an activated complex is defined by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) as "that assembly of atoms which corresponds to an arbitrary infinitesimally small region at or near the col (saddle point) of a potential ...
– *
Reaction rate The reaction rate or rate of reaction is the speed at which a chemical reaction takes place, defined as proportional to the increase in the concentration of a product per unit time and to the decrease in the concentration of a reactant per unit ...
– * Catalyst


Thermochemical Equations

* Chemical equations that include the heat involved in a reaction, either on the reactant side or the product side. * Examples: ** H2O(l) + 240kJ → H2O(g) ** N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 + 92kJ * Joule (J) –


Enthalpy

How to calculate the enthalpy of ?


Enthalpy and Thermochemical Equations


Endothermic Reactions


Exothermic Reactions


Potential Energy Diagrams


Thermochemistry Stoichiometry


Chemists

: ''For more chemists, see: Nobel Prize in Chemistry and List of chemists'' * Amedeo Avogadro * Elias James Corey * Marie Curie *
John Dalton John Dalton (; 5 or 6 September 1766 – 27 July 1844) was an English chemist, physicist and meteorologist. He is best known for introducing the atomic theory into chemistry, and for his research into colour blindness, which he had. Colour b ...
* Humphry Davy * George Eastman * Michael Faraday *
Rosalind Franklin Rosalind Elsie Franklin (25 July 192016 April 1958) was a British chemist and X-ray crystallographer whose work was central to the understanding of the molecular structures of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), RNA (ribonucleic acid), viruses, co ...
* Eleuthère Irénée du Pont *
Dmitriy Mendeleyev Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (sometimes transliterated as Mendeleyev or Mendeleef) ( ; russian: links=no, Дмитрий Иванович Менделеев, tr. , ; 8 February O.S. 27 January">Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates.html" ;"title="no ...
*
Alfred Nobel Alfred Bernhard Nobel ( , ; 21 October 1833 – 10 December 1896) was a Swedes, Swedish chemist, engineer, inventor, businessman, and Philanthropy, philanthropist. He is best known for having bequeathed his fortune to establish the Nobel ...
* Wilhelm Ostwald *
Louis Pasteur Louis Pasteur (, ; 27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895) was a French chemist and microbiologist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization, the latter of which was named afte ...
*
Linus Pauling Linus Carl Pauling (; February 28, 1901August 19, 1994) was an American chemist, biochemist, chemical engineer, peace activist, author, and educator. He published more than 1,200 papers and books, of which about 850 dealt with scientific top ...
* Joseph Priestley * Robert Burns Woodward * Karl Ziegler * Ahmed Zewail


Chemistry literature

* Scientific literature – *
Scientific journal In academic publishing, a scientific journal is a periodical publication intended to further the progress of science, usually by reporting new research. Content Articles in scientific journals are mostly written by active scientists such as s ...
– * Academic journal – * List of important publications in chemistry * List of scientific journals in chemistry ; List of science magazines * Scientific American


Lists

;
Chemical elements data references The List of data references for chemical elements is divided into datasheets that give values for many properties of the elements, together with various references. Each datasheet is sequenced by atomic number. References for chemical elements ...
*
List of chemical elements This is a list of the 118 chemical elements which have been identified as of 2022. A chemical element, often simply called an element, is a type of atom which has the same number of protons in its atomic nucleus (i.e., the same atomic number, or ' ...
— atomic mass, atomic number, symbol, name * List of minerals - Minerals *
Electron configurations of the elements (data page) This page shows the electron configurations of the neutral gaseous atoms in their ground states. For each atom the subshells are given first in concise form, then with all subshells written out, followed by the number of electrons per shell. Elect ...
— electron configuration, electrons per shell * Densities of the elements (data page) — density (solid, liquid, gas) * Electron affinity (data page) — electron affinity *
Melting points of the elements (data page) Melting point In the following table, the use row is the value recommended for use in other Wikipedia pages in order to maintain consistency across content. Notes * All values at standard pressure (101.325 kPa) unless noted. Triple point ...
— melting point *
Boiling points of the elements (data page) Boiling point In the following table, the use row is the value recommended for use in other Wikipedia pages in order to maintain consistency across content. Table Notes * Unless noted, all values refer to the normal boiling point at ...
— boiling point *
Critical points of the elements (data page) Critical point References CRC.a-d David R. Lide (ed), ''CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 85th Edition'', online version. CRC Press. Boca Raton, Florida, 2003; Section 6, Fluid Properties; Critical Constants. Also agrees with Celsius values ...
— critical point *
Heats of fusion of the elements (data page) Heat of fusion Notes * Values refer to the enthalpy change between the liquid phase and the most stable solid phase at the melting point (normal, 101.325 kPa). References CRC As quoted from various sources in an online version of: * Dav ...
— heat of fusion *
Heats of vaporization of the elements (data page) Heat of vaporization Notes * Values refer to the enthalpy Enthalpy , a property of a thermodynamic system, is the sum of the system's internal energy and the product of its pressure and volume. It is a state function used in many measur ...
— heat of vaporization *
Heat capacities of the elements (data page) Specific heat capacity Notes * All values refer to 25 °C and to the thermodynamically stable standard state at that temperature unless noted. * Values from CRC refer to "100 kPa (1 bar or 0.987 standard atmospheres)". Lange indirectly ...
— heat capacity *
Vapor pressures of the elements (data page) Vapor pressure Notes *Values are given in terms of temperature necessary to reach the specified pressure. *Valid results within the quoted ranges from most equations are included in the table for comparison. *A conversion factor is included ...
— vapor pressure * Electronegativities of the elements (data page) — electronegativity (Pauling scale) * Ionization energies of the elements (data page) — ionization energies (in eV) and molar ionization energies (in kJ/mol) *
Atomic radii of the elements (data page) The atomic radius of a chemical element is the distance from the center of the nucleus to the outermost shell of an electron. Since the boundary is not a well-defined physical entity, there are various non-equivalent definitions of atomic radius. ...
— atomic radius (empirical), atomic radius (calculated), van der Waals radius, covalent radius *
Electrical resistivities of the elements (data page) Electrical resistivity References WEL As quoted at http://www.webelements.com/ from these sources: * G.W.C. Kaye and T. H. Laby in ''Tables of physical and chemical constants'', Longman, London, UK, 15th edition, 1993. * A.M. James and M.P. ...
— electrical resistivity *
Thermal conductivities of the elements (data page) Thermal conductivity Notes * Ref. CRC: Values refer to 27 °C unless noted. * Ref. CR2: Values refer to 300 K and a pressure of "100 kPa (1 bar)", or to the saturation vapor pressure if that is less than 100 kPa. The notation (P=0) denotes ...
— thermal conductivity * Thermal expansion coefficients of the elements (data page) — thermal expansion *
Speeds of sound of the elements (data page) The speed of sound in any chemical element in the fluid phase has one temperature-dependent value. In the solid phase, different types of sound wave may be propagated, each with its own speed: among these types of wave are longitudinal (as in flui ...
— speed of sound *
Elastic properties of the elements (data page) Young's modulus Poisson's ratio Bulk modulus Shear modulus References See also {{Navbox periodic table Chemical properties Chemical element data pages ...
— Young's modulus, Poisson ratio, bulk modulus, shear modulus * Hardnesses of the elements (data page) — Mohs hardness, Vickers hardness, Brinell hardness *
Abundances of the elements (data page) Earth bulk continental crust and upper continental crust *C1 — Crust: CRC Handbook *C2 — Crust: Kaye and Laby *C3 — Crust: Greenwood *C4 — Crust: Ahrens (Taylor) *C5 — Crust: Ahrens (Wänke) *C6 — Crust: Ahrens (Weaver) *U1 — Uppe ...
— Earth's crust, sea water, Sun and solar system *
List of oxidation states of the elements In chemistry, the oxidation state, or oxidation number, is the hypothetical charge of an atom if all of its bonds to different atoms were fully ionic. It describes the degree of oxidation (loss of electrons) of an atom in a chemical compound. C ...
— oxidation states ;
List of compounds Compounds are organized into the following lists: * , compounds without a C–H bond * See also * * * * * * * * * * can form compounds External links Relevant links for chemical compounds are: * The CASbr>Substance DatabasesCo ...
* List of CAS numbers by chemical compound * List of Extremely Hazardous Substances *
List of inorganic compounds Although most compounds are referred to by their IUPAC systematic names (following IUPAC nomenclature), traditional names have also been kept where they are in wide use or of significant historical interests. A Ac * Actinium(III) chloride ...
*
List of organic compounds This is a list of common chemical compounds with chemical formulae and CAS numbers, indexed by formula.This complements alternative listing at list of inorganic compounds. There is no complete list of chemical compounds since by nature the list ...
* List of alkanes * List of alloys ;Other * List of thermal conductivities *
List of purification methods in chemistry Purification in a chemical context is the physical separation of a chemical substance of interest from foreign or contaminating substances. Pure results of a successful purification process are termed isolate. The following list of chemical pur ...
* List of unsolved problems in chemistry


See also

*
Outline of biochemistry The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to biochemistry: Biochemistry – study of chemical processes in living organisms, including living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes ...
*
Outline of physics The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to physics: Physics – natural science that involves the study of matterRichard Feynman begins his ''Lectures'' with the atomic hypothesis, as his most compact statement of ...


References


External links


International Union of Pure and Applied ChemistryIUPAC Nomenclature Home Page
see especially the "Gold Book" containing definitions of standard chemical terms

of Chemistry]
/ Chemical energetics
{{portal bar, Chemistry, Science, Technology Outlines of sciences, Chemistry
Chemistry Chemistry is the science, scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a natural science that covers the Chemical element, elements that make up matter to the chemical compound, compounds made of atoms, molecules and ions ...