Jiaozhi (

standard Chinese Standard Chinese ()—in linguistics Standard Northern Mandarin or Standard Beijing Mandarin, in common speech simply Mandarin, better qualified as Standard Mandarin, Modern Standard Mandarin or Standard Mandarin Chinese—is a modern standa ...

pinyin Hanyu Pinyin (), often shortened to just pinyin, is the official romanization system for Standard Mandarin Chinese in China, and to some extent, in Singapore and Malaysia. It is often used to teach Mandarin, normally written in Chinese fo ...

: ''Jiāozhǐ''), or Giao Chỉ (Vietnamese), was a historical region ruled by various

Chinese dynasties Dynasties in Chinese history, or Chinese dynasties, were hereditary monarchical regimes that ruled over China during much of its history. From the legendary inauguration of dynastic rule by Yu the Great circa 2070 BC to the abdication of t ...

, corresponding to present-day northern

Vietnam Vietnam or Viet Nam ( vi, Việt Nam, ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,., group="n" is a country in Southeast Asia, at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of and population of 96 million, making ...

. The kingdom of

Nanyue Nanyue (), was an ancient kingdom ruled by Chinese monarchs of the Zhao family that covered the modern Chinese subdivisions of Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Hong Kong, Macau, southern Fujian and central to northern Vietnam. Nanyue was establis ...

(204–111 BC) set up the Jiaozhi Commandery (; Vietnamese: Quận Giao Chỉ, Hán-Nôm: 郡交趾) an administrative division centered in the

Red River Delta The Red River Delta or Hong River Delta ( vi, Châu thổ sông Hồng) is the flat low-lying plain formed by the Red River and its distributaries merging with the Thái Bình River in northern Vietnam. ''Hồng'' (紅) is a Sino-Vietnamese word ...

that existed through Vietnam's first and

second The second (symbol: s) is the unit of time in the International System of Units (SI), historically defined as of a day – this factor derived from the division of the day first into 24 hours, then to 60 minutes and finally to 60 seconds ea ...

periods of Chinese rule. During the

Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Emperor Gaozu of Han, Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by th ...

, the

commandery In the Middle Ages, a commandery (rarely commandry) was the smallest administrative division of the European landed properties of a military order. It was also the name of the house where the knights of the commandery lived.Anthony Luttrell and ...

was part of a province of the same name (later renamed to Jiaozhou) that covered modern-day northern and central Vietnam as well as

Guangdong Guangdong (, ), alternatively romanized as Canton or Kwangtung, is a coastal province in South China on the north shore of the South China Sea. The capital of the province is Guangzhou. With a population of 126.01 million (as of 2020 ...

and

Guangxi Guangxi (; ; alternately romanized as Kwanghsi; ; za, Gvangjsih, italics=yes), officially the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region (GZAR), is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China, located in South China and bordering Vietnam ...

in southern China. In 670 AD, Jiaozhi was absorbed into the Annan Protectorate established by the

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...

. Afterwards, official use of the name Jiaozhi was superseded by "Annan" (Annam) and other names of Vietnam, except during the brief fourth period of Chinese rule when the

Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...

administered Vietnam as the

Jiaozhi Province Jiaozhi Province was a province of the Chinese Ming dynasty that existed during its brief rule of northern Vietnam from 1407 to 1427, known in historiography as the Fourth Era of Northern Domination. The province's name, Jiaozhi, was an earli ...

Name

Chinese chroniclers assigned various

folk etymologies Folk etymology (also known as popular etymology, analogical reformation, reanalysis, morphological reanalysis or etymological reinterpretation) is a change in a word or phrase resulting from the replacement of an unfamiliar form by a more famili ...

for the toponym. *In

Book of Rites The ''Book of Rites'', also known as the ''Liji'', is a collection of texts describing the social forms, administration, and ceremonial rites of the Zhou dynasty as they were understood in the Warring States and the early Han periods. The ''Boo ...

's subsection Royal Regulations, 交趾 was used to describe the physical characteristics of

Nanman The Man, commonly known as the Nanman or Southern Man (, ''lit. Southern Barbarians''), were ancient indigenous peoples who lived in inland South and Southwest China, mainly around the Yangtze River valley. In ancient Chinese sources, the ...

- southern neighbours of the Zhou, and 交趾 was translated as either "feet turned in towards each other" (

James Legge James Legge (; 20 December 181529 November 1897) was a Scottish linguist, missionary, sinologist, and translator who was best known as an early translator of Classical Chinese texts into English. Legge served as a representative of the Londo ...

) or "toes... crossed" (James M. Hargett). *

Book of Later Han The ''Book of the Later Han'', also known as the ''History of the Later Han'' and by its Chinese name ''Hou Hanshu'' (), is one of the Twenty-Four Histories and covers the history of the Han dynasty from 6 to 189 CE, a period known as the Lat ...

also quoted the same passage from Book of Rites yet gave 交趾's etymology as: " ccording totheir customs, men and women bathe in the same river; hence the appellation ''Jiāozhǐ''". *

Tang period The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...

's encyclopedia Tongdian also stated that: "The southernmost people

ave ''Alta Velocidad Española'' (''AVE'') is a service of high-speed rail in Spain operated by Renfe, the Spanish national railway company, at speeds of up to . As of December 2021, the Spanish high-speed rail network, on part of which the AVE s ...

tattooed foreheads (題額) and intersecting toes (交趾); ccording totheir customs, men and women bathe in the same river. ytattooed foreheads (題額) it means they engrave their flesh with blue/green dye; ycrossed toes (交趾), it means that each foot's big toe is spread widely outwards and crosses one another when personstands ith feetside-by-side." * Song period's encyclopaedia Taiping Yulan quoted Ying Shao's " Han Officials' Etiquettes" that " Emperor Xiaowu leveled the Hundred Yue in the South ..established Jiaozhi (交阯); .. eoplestarted out in the North, then crossed (交 jiāo) at the South, for their descendants hey laid theirbasis (jī 基) & foundation (zhǐ 阯)

here Here is an adverb that means "in, on, or at this place". It may also refer to: Software * Here Technologies, a mapping company * Here WeGo (formerly Here Maps), a mobile app and map website by Here Television * Here TV (formerly "here!"), a ...

. According to Michel Ferlus, the Sino-Vietnamese ''Jiao'' in Jiāozhǐ (交趾), together with the ethnonym and autonym of the Lao people (lǎo 獠), and the ethnonym Gēlǎo (仡佬), a Kra population scattered from

Guizhou Guizhou (; Postal romanization, formerly Kweichow) is a landlocked Provinces of China, province in the Southwest China, southwest region of the China, People's Republic of China. Its capital and largest city is Guiyang, in the center of the pr ...

(China) to North Vietnam, would have emerged from *k(ə)ra:w. The etymon *k(ə)ra:w would have also yielded the ethnonym Keo/ Kæw ''kɛːw^A1'', a name given to the Vietnamese by Tai speaking peoples, currently slightly derogatory. In Pupeo ( Kra branch), ''kew'' is used to name the

Tay Tay may refer to: People and languages * Tay (name), including lists of people with the given name, surname and nickname * Tay people, an ethnic group of Vietnam ** Tày language *Atayal language, an Austronesian language spoken in Taiwan (ISO 639 ...

( Central Tai) of North Vietnam. Frederic Pain proposes that *k(ə)ra:w means 'human being' and originates from

Austroasiatic The Austroasiatic languages , , are a large language family in Mainland Southeast Asia and South Asia. These languages are scattered throughout parts of Thailand, Laos, India, Myanmar, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Nepal, and southern China and are th ...

: he further links it to a local root *trawʔ, which is associated with

taro Taro () (''Colocasia esculenta)'' is a root vegetable. It is the most widely cultivated species of several plants in the family Araceae that are used as vegetables for their corms, leaves, and petioles. Taro corms are a food staple in Afri ...

, is ancestral to various Austroasiatic lexical items such as "Monic (Spoken Mon ''krao'' or Nyah-kur ''traw''), Palaungic (Tung-wa ''kraɷʔ'' or Sem ''klao''), or Katuic (Ong ''raw'' or Souei ''ʰraw'' < proto-Katuic *''craw'')", and possibly evoked "a particular (most probably tuber-based) cultivation practice used by small Mon-Khmer horticultural communities—as opposed to more complex and advanced cereal-growing (probably rice-based) societies" Meanwhile, James Chamberlain claims that ''Jiao'' originated from a word also ancestral to Lao, thus meaning Jiao & Lao are cognates. Chamberlain, like Joachim Schlesinger, claim that the Vietnamese language was not originally based in the area of the Red River in what is now northern Vietnam. According to them, the Red River Delta region was originally inhabited by Tai- speakers. They claim that the area become Vietnamese-speaking only between the seventh and ninth centuries AD, or even as late as the tenth century, as a result of immigration from the south, i.e., modern north-central Vietnam. According to Han-

Tang Tang or TANG most often refers to: * Tang dynasty * Tang (drink mix) Tang or TANG may also refer to: Chinese states and dynasties * Jin (Chinese state) (11th century – 376 BC), a state during the Spring and Autumn period, called Tang (唐) ...

records, east of Jiaozhi and the coast of

was populated by Tai-Kadai speakers (whom Chinese contemporaries called ''Lǐ'' 俚 and ''Lǎo'' 獠). Catherine Churchman proposes that the Chinese character 獠 transliterated a native term and was shortened from older two-character combinations (which were used transcribe the endonym's initial consonantal cluster); noting that the older two-character combinations 鳩獠 ''Qiūlǎo'' , 狐獠 ''Húlǎo'', and 屈獠 ''Qūlǎo'' had been pronounced *''kɔ-lawʔ'', *''ɣɔ-lawʔ'', and *''kʰut-lawʔ'' respectively in

Middle Chinese Middle Chinese (formerly known as Ancient Chinese) or the Qieyun system (QYS) is the historical variety of Chinese recorded in the '' Qieyun'', a rime dictionary first published in 601 and followed by several revised and expanded editions. The ...

, she reconstructs the endonym *''klao'', which is either related to the word ''klao'', meaning "person", in the

Kra languages The Kra languages (also known as the Geyang 仡央 or Kadai languages) are a branch of the Kra–Dai language family spoken in southern China (Guizhou, Guangxi, Yunnan) and in northern Vietnam (Hà Giang Province). Names The name ''Kra'' comes ...

, or is a compound, meaning "our people", of prefix ''k-'' for "people" and

Proto-Tai Proto-Tai is the reconstructed proto-language (common ancestor) of all the Tai languages, including modern Lao, Shan, Tai Lü, Tai Dam, Ahom, Northern Thai, Standard Thai, Bouyei, and Zhuang. The Proto-Tai language is not directly atteste ...

first person plural pronoun *''rəu'' "we, us". Even so, Michael Churchman acknowledged that "The absence of records of large-scale population shifts indicates that there was a fairly stable group of people in Jiaozhi throughout the Han–Tang period who spoke Austroasiatic languages ancestral to modern Vietnamese." Jiaozhi, pronounced ' in the Malay, became the ' of the Portuguese traders , who so named it to distinguish it from the

city A city is a human settlement of notable size.Goodall, B. (1987) ''The Penguin Dictionary of Human Geography''. London: Penguin.Kuper, A. and Kuper, J., eds (1996) ''The Social Science Encyclopedia''. 2nd edition. London: Routledge. It can be def ...

and the

Kingdom of Cochin The Kingdom of Cochin, named after its capital in the city of Kochi (Cochin), was a kingdom in the central part of present-day Kerala state. It commenced at the early part of the 12th century and continued to rule until 1949, when monarchy wa ...

in India, their first headquarters in the

Malabar Coast The Malabar Coast is the southwestern coast of the Indian subcontinent. Geographically, it comprises the wettest regions of southern India, as the Western Ghats intercept the moisture-laden monsoon rains, especially on their westward-facing ...

. It was subsequently called "

Cochinchina Cochinchina or Cochin-China (, ; vi, Đàng Trong (17th century - 18th century, Việt Nam (1802-1831), Đại Nam (1831-1862), Nam Kỳ (1862-1945); km, កូសាំងស៊ីន, Kosăngsin; french: Cochinchine; ) is a historical exon ...

History

Early Mentions

Numerous Chinese sources, dated to the Spring & Autumn and

Warring States The Warring States period () was an era in ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded with the Qin wars of conquest ...

periods, mentioned a place called ''Jiao(zhi)'' to the south of

Ancient China The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), during the reign of king Wu Ding. Ancient historical texts such as the '' Book of Documents'' (early chapt ...

. Book of Rites is the earliest extant source to associate the name Jiaozhi with the

. However, Vietnamese historian

Đào Duy Anh Đào Duy Anh (25 April 1904 – 1 April 1988) was a Vietnamese historian and lexicographer. He was born in Thanh Oai, Hà Tây, now, Hà Nội. He was one of the writers associated with the Nhân Văn-Giai Phẩm movement. He was the gener ...

locates Jiaozhi (which was mentioned in ancient texts) only south of Mount Heng (衡山) (aka 霍山 Mount Huo or 天柱山

Mount Tianzhu Tianzhu Mountain or Mount Tianzhu () is a mountain in Anhui, China. Tianzhu Mountain is also called Mount Wan (), from which the provincial abbreviation for Anhui ("Wan") derives. Ancient names of the mountain include Mount Huo 霍山, Mount Hen ...

), within the lower part of

Yangtze The Yangtze or Yangzi ( or ; ) is the longest river in Asia, the third-longest in the world, and the longest in the world to flow entirely within one country. It rises at Jari Hill in the Tanggula Mountains (Tibetan Plateau) and flows ...

's drainage basin, and nowhere farther than today Anhui province in China (i.e. not in today

northern Vietnam Northern Vietnam ( vi, Bắc Bộ) is one of three geographical regions within Vietnam. It consists of three administrative regions: the Northwest (Vùng Tây Bắc), the Northeast (Vùng Đông Bắc), and the Red River Delta (Đồng Bằng ...

); accordingly, Đào defines ''Jiao(zhi)'' as "lands in the south which bordered ncient Chinese'sterritories".

Van Lang

The native state of Văn Lang is not well attested, but much later sources name as one of the realm's districts ('). Its territory purportedly comprised present-day

Hanoi Hanoi or Ha Noi ( or ; vi, Hà Nội ) is the capital and second-largest city of Vietnam. It covers an area of . It consists of 12 urban districts, one district-leveled town and 17 rural districts. Located within the Red River Delta, Hanoi i ...

and the land on the right bank of the Red River. According to tradition, the

Hung kings Hung may refer to: People * Hung (surname), various Chinese surnames * Hùng king, a king of Vietnam People with the given name Hung include: * Hung Huynh, Vietnamese-American chef, winner of the third season of the television show ''Top Chef' ...

directly ruled Mê Linh while other areas were ruled by dependent Lac lords. The Van Lang kingdom fell to the Âu under prince Thục Phán around 258 BC.

Âu Lạc

Thục Phán established his capital at Co Loa in Hanoi's Dong Anh

district A district is a type of administrative division that, in some countries, is managed by the local government. Across the world, areas known as "districts" vary greatly in size, spanning regions or counties, several municipalities, subdivision ...

. The citadel was taken around 208 BC by the Qin general

Zhao Tuo Zhao Tuo () or Triệu Đà (Chữ Hán: 趙佗); was a Qin dynasty Chinese general and first emperor of Nanyue. He participated in the conquest of the Baiyue peoples of Guangdong, Guangxi and Northern Vietnam. After the fall of the Qin, he ...

Nanyue

declared his independent kingdom of

in 204 and organized his Vietnamese territory as the two commanderies of Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen (; present-day Thanh Hóa, Nghệ An, and Hà Tĩnh). Following a native coup that killed the Zhao king and his Chinese mother, the Han launched two invasions in 112 and 111 BC that razed the Nanyue capital at Panyu (

Guangzhou Guangzhou (, ; ; or ; ), also known as Canton () and Chinese postal romanization, alternatively romanized as Kwongchow or Kwangchow, is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Guangdong Provinces of China, province in South China, sou ...

). When Han dynasty conquered

in 111 BC, the Han court divided it into 9 commanderies, one commandery called Jiaozhi was the center of Han administration and government for all 9 areas. Because of this, the entire areas of 9 commanderies was sometime called Jiaozhi. From Han to Tang, the names Jiaozhi and Jiao county at least was used for a part of the Han-era Jiaozhi. In 670, Jiaozhi was absorbed into a larger administrative called Annan (Pacified South). After this, the name Jiaozhi was applied for the

and most or all of northern Vietnam (Tonkin).

Han dynasty

The

received the submission of the Nanyue commanders in Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen, confirming them in their posts and ushering in the " First Era of Northern Domination" in Vietnamese history. These commanderies were headed by

grand administrator A jùn (郡) was a historical administrative division of China from the Eastern Zhou (c. 7th century BCE) until the early Tang dynasty (c. 7th century CE). It is usually translated as a commandery. Countries around Chi ...

s (''taishou'') who were later overseen by the inspectors (, ''cishi'') of Jiaozhou or ('), the first of whom was Shi Dai. Under the Han, the political center of the former Nanyue lands was moved from Panyu (

) south to Jiaozhi. The capital of Jiaozhi was first Mê Linh (Miling) (within modern

's Me Linh

) and then

Luy Lâu Luy Lâu ( Vietnamese) or Leilou (<

Middle Chinese

Bac Ninh's Thuan Thanh

. According to the ''

Book of Han The ''Book of Han'' or ''History of the Former Han'' (Qián Hàn Shū,《前汉书》) is a history of China finished in 111AD, covering the Western, or Former Han dynasty from the first emperor in 206 BCE to the fall of Wang Mang in 23 CE. ...

''’s "Treatise on Geography", Jiaozhi contained 10

counties A county is a geographic region of a country used for administrative or other purposesChambers Dictionary, L. Brookes (ed.), 2005, Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd, Edinburgh in certain modern nations. The term is derived from the Old French ...

: Leilou (羸𨻻), Anding (安定), Goulou (苟屚), Miling (麊泠), Quyang (曲昜), Beidai (北帶), Jixu (稽徐), Xiyu (西于), Longbian (龍編), and Zhugou (朱覯).

stated that Jiaozhi's territory contained all of

Tonkin Tonkin, also spelled ''Tongkin'', ''Tonquin'' or ''Tongking'', is an exonym referring to the northern region of Vietnam. During the 17th and 18th centuries, this term referred to the domain '' Đàng Ngoài'' under Trịnh lords' control, includ ...

, excluding the regions upstream of the Black River and Ma River. Southwestern

was also part of Jiaozhi.''Đất nước Việt Nam qua các đời'', Văn hóa Thông tin publisher, 2005 The southwest area of present-day

Ninh Bình Ninh Bình () is a small city in the Red River Delta of northern Vietnam. It is the capital of Ninh Bình Province. Geography Ninh Bình Province is located in northern Vietnam comprising 48 square kilometres; the 2007 city population was 130,5 ...

was the border of Jiuzhen. Later, the Han dynasty created another commandery named

Rinan Rinan (; vi, Nhật Nam), also rendered as Jih-nan, was the southernmost commandery of the Chinese Han dynasty. It was located in the central area of modern-day Vietnam between Quảng Bình and Bình Định provinces. It was administered by ...

(') located south of Jiuzhen, stretching from the

Ngang Pass The Ngang Pass ( vi, Đèo Ngang, , literally "Transverse Mountain Pass") is a mountain pass on the border of the provinces of Quảng Bình and Hà Tĩnh, in the North Central Coast of Vietnam. National Route 1 crosses it as it traverses the H ...

to Quảng Nam Province. One of the Grand Administrators of Jiaozhi was Su Ding. In AD 39, two sisters Trưng Trắc and Trưng Nhị who were daughters of the Lac lord of Mê Linh, led an

uprising Rebellion, uprising, or insurrection is a refusal of obedience or order. It refers to the open resistance against the orders of an established authority. A rebellion originates from a sentiment of indignation and disapproval of a situation and ...

that quickly spread to an area stretching approximate modern-day Vietnam (Jiaozhi, Jiuzhen,

Hepu Hepu (), alternately romanized as Hoppo, Hopu or Hop'u, is a county under the administration of Beihai City in southeastern Guangxi, China. It borders Lianjiang (Guangdong) to the southeast, Bobai County to the northeast, the Gulf of Tonkin to t ...

and

), forcing Su Ding and the Han army to flee. All of Lac lords submitted to Trưng Trắc and crowned her Queen. In AD 42 the Han empire struck back by sending an reconquest expedition led by Ma Yuan.

Copper columns of Ma Yuan Copper columns of Ma Yuan ( vi, Cột đồng Mã Viện) were a pair of copper columns erected by General Ma Yuan of Han China after his suppression of the Trung sisters' rebellion in 43 AD. The columns stood at southern frontier of Tượng Lâ ...

was supposedly erected by Ma Yuan after he had suppressed the uprising of the Trưng Sisters in AD 44. Ma Yuan followed his conquest with a brutal course of assimilation, destroying the natives' bronze drums in order to build the column, on which the inscription "If this bronze column collapses, Jiaozhi will be destroyed" was carved, at the edge of the Chinese empire. Following the defeat of Trưng sisters, thousands of Chinese immigrants (mostly soldiers) arrived and settled in Jiaozhi, adopted surname Ma, and married with local Lac Viet girls, began the developing of Han-Viet ruling class while local Lac ruling-class families who had submitted to Ma Yuan were used as local functionaries in Han administration and were natural participants in the intermarriage process. In 100,

Cham people The Cham (Cham: ''Čaṃ'') or Champa people (Cham: , ''Urang Campa''; vi, Người Chăm or ; km, ជនជាតិចាម, ) are an Austronesian ethnic group. From the 2nd century to 1832 the Cham populated Champa, a contiguous territor ...

in Xianglin county (near modern-day

Huế Huế () is the capital of Thừa Thiên Huế province in central Vietnam and was the capital of Đàng Trong from 1738 to 1775 and of Vietnam during the Nguyễn dynasty from 1802 to 1945. The city served as the old Imperial City and admi ...

) revolted against the Han rule due to high taxes. The Cham plundered and burned down the Han centers. The Han respond by putting down the rebellion, executed their leaders and granting Xianglin a two year tax respite. In 136 and 144, Cham people again launched another two rebellions which provoked mutinies in the Imperial army from Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen, then rebellion in Jiaozhi. The governor of Jiaozhi, according to Kiernan, "lured them to surrender" with "enticing words." In 115, the Wuhu Li of Cangwu district revolted against the Han. In the following year, thousand of rebels from Yulin and Hepu besieged Cangwu. Empress Dowager Deng decided to avoid conflict and instead sent attendant censor Ren Chuo with a proclamation to grant them amnesty. In 157, Lac leader

Chu Đạt Chu Đạt (朱達, ?–160) was the leader of a rebellion in Cuu Chan, which made attacks against the repression of Eastern Han The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25 ...

in Jiuzhen attacked and killed the Chinese magistrate, then marched north with an army of four to five thousand. The governor of Jiuzhen, Ni Shi, was killed. The Han general of Jiuzhen, Wei Lang, gathered an army and defeated Chu Đạt, beheading 2,000 rebels. In 159 and 161, Indian merchants arrived Jiaozhi and paid tributes to the Han government. In 166, a Roman trade mission arrived Jiaozhi, bringing tributes to the Han, which "were likely bought from local markets" of Rinan and Jiaozhi. In 178, Wuhu people under Liang Long sparked a revolt against the Han in

and Jiaozhi. Liang Long spread his revolt to all northern Vietnam,

and central Vietnam as well, attracting all non-Chinese ethnic groups in Jiaozhi to join. In 181, the Han empire sent general Chu Chuan to deal with the revolt. In June 181 Liang Long was captured and beheaded, and his rebellion was suppressed. In 192,

in Xianglin county led by Khu Liên successful revolted against the Han dynasty. Khu Liên found the independent kingdom of Lâm Ấp. Jiaozhi emerged as the economic center of gravity on the southern coast of the Han empire. In 2 AD, the region reported four times as many households as Nanhai (modern Guangdong), while its population density is estimated to be 9.6 times larger than that of Guangdong. Jiaozhi was a key supplier of rice and produced prized handicrafts and natural resources. The region's location was highly favorable to trade. Well connected to central China via the Ling Canal, it formed the nearest connection between the Han court and the Maritime Silk Road. By the end of the second century AD,

Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...

(brought from India via sea by Indian Buddhists centuries earlier) had become the most common religion of Jiaozhi.

Three Kingdoms

During the

Three Kingdoms The Three Kingdoms () from 220 to 280 AD was the tripartite division of China among the dynastic states of Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu. The Three Kingdoms period was preceded by the Eastern Han dynasty and was followed by the West ...

period, Jiaozhi was administered from Longbian (') by Shi Xie on behalf of the Wu. This family controlled several surrounding commanderies, but upon the headman's death

was formed as a separate province from northeastern Jiaozhou and Shi Xie's son attempted to usurp his father's appointed replacement. In retaliation,

Sun Quan Sun Quan (, Chinese: 孫權) (183 – 21 May 252), courtesy name Zhongmou (), posthumously known as Emperor Da of Wu, was the founder of the Eastern Wu dynasty, one of the Three Kingdoms of China. He inherited control of the warlord regime ...

executed the son and all his brothers and demoted the remainder of the family to common status.

Ming dynasty

During the

Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam The Fourth Era of Northern Domination was a period of Vietnamese history, from 1407 to 1427, during which Vietnam was ruled by the Chinese Ming dynasty as the province of Jiaozhi (Giao Chỉ). Ming rule was established in Vietnam following its ...

, the

revived the historical name Jiaozhi and created the

in northern Vietnam. After repelling the Ming forces, Lê Lợi dismissed all former administrative structure and divided the nation into 5 ''dao''. Thus, Giao Chỉ and Giao Châu have never been names of official administrative units ever since.

Sino-Roman contact

Green glass Roman cup unearthed at Eastern Han tomb, Guixian, China

In 166 CE An-tun ( Marcus Aurelius Antoninus) of the state of Ta Ch'in sent missinaries from beyond

to offer present of ivory, rhinoceros horn, and tortoise to the Han court. Hou Han shu records:

In the ninth Yanxi year D 166 during the reign of Emperor Huan, the king of Da Qin he Roman Empire Andun ( Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, 161–180), sent envoys from beyond the frontiers through Rinan... During the reign of Emperor He D 89–105 they sent several envoys carrying tribute and offerings. Later, the Western Regions rebelled, and these relations were interrupted. Then, during the second and the fourth Yanxi years in the reign of Emperor Huan D 159 and 161 and frequently since, heseforeigners have arrived y seaat the frontiers of Rinan ommandery in modern central Vietnamto present offerings.

The '' Book of Liang'' states:

The merchants of this country he Roman Empirefrequently visit Funan n_the_Mekong_delta.html"_;"title="Mekong.html"_;"title="n_the_Mekong">n_the_Mekong_delta">Mekong.html"_;"title="n_the_Mekong">n_the_Mekong_delta_Rinan_(Annam_(Chinese_province).html" ;"title="Mekong">n_the_Mekong_delta.html" ;"title="Mekong.html" ;"title="n the Mekong">n the Mekong delta">Mekong.html" ;"title="n the Mekong">n the Mekong delta Rinan (Annam (Chinese province)">Annam) and Jiaozhi [in the
Red River Delta The Red River Delta or Hong River Delta ( vi, Châu thổ sông Hồng) is the flat low-lying plain formed by the Red River and its distributaries merging with the Thái Bình River in northern Vietnam. ''Hồng'' (紅) is a Sino-Vietnamese word ...
near modern
Hanoi Hanoi or Ha Noi ( or ; vi, Hà Nội ) is the capital and second-largest city of Vietnam. It covers an area of . It consists of 12 urban districts, one district-leveled town and 17 rural districts. Located within the Red River Delta, Hanoi i ...
]; but few of the inhabitants of these southern frontier states have come to Da Qin. During the 5th year of the Huangwu period of the reign of Sun Quan [AD 226] a merchant of Da Qin, whose name was Qin Lun came to Jiaozhi onkin the prefect 'taishou''of Jiaozhi, Wu Miao, sent him to
Sun Quan Sun Quan (, Chinese: 孫權) (183 – 21 May 252), courtesy name Zhongmou (), posthumously known as Emperor Da of Wu, was the founder of the Eastern Wu dynasty, one of the Three Kingdoms of China. He inherited control of the warlord regime ...
he Wu emperor who asked him for a report on his native country and its people."

The capital of Jiaozhi was proposed by

Ferdinand von Richthofen Baron Ferdinand Freiherr von Richthofen (5 May 18336 October 1905), better known in English as was a German traveller, geographer, and scientist. He is noted for coining the terms "Seidenstraße" and "Seidenstraßen" = "Silk Road(s)" or "Silk ...

in 1877 to have been the port known to the geographer

Ptolemy Claudius Ptolemy (; grc-gre, Πτολεμαῖος, ; la, Claudius Ptolemaeus; AD) was a mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist, who wrote about a dozen scientific treatises, three of which were of importanc ...

and the Romans as

Kattigara Cattigara is the name of a major port city located on the Magnus Sinus described by various antiquity sources. Modern scholars have linked Cattigara to the archaeological site of Óc Eo in present-day Vietnam. Ptolemy's description Cattigara w ...

, situated near modern

. Richthofen's view was widely accepted until archaeology at Óc Eo in the

Mekong Delta The Mekong Delta ( vi, Đồng bằng Sông Cửu Long, lit=Nine Dragon River Delta or simply vi, Đồng Bằng Sông Mê Kông, lit=Mekong River Delta, label=none), also known as the Western Region ( vi, Miền Tây, links=no) or South-weste ...

suggested that site may have been its location. Kattigara seems to have been the main port of call for ships traveling to China from the West in the first few centuries AD, before being replaced by

.Hill 2004 - see

and Appendix: F. In terms of archaeological finds, a Roman Republic, Republican-era

Roman glass Roman glass objects have been recovered across the Roman Empire in domestic, industrial and funerary contexts. Glass was used primarily for the production of vessels, although mosaic tiles and window glass were also produced. Roman glass productio ...

ware has been found at a

Western Han The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a war ...

tomb in

along the

South China Sea The South China Sea is a marginal sea of the Western Pacific Ocean. It is bounded in the north by the shores of South China (hence the name), in the west by the Indochinese Peninsula, in the east by the islands of Taiwan and northwestern Ph ...

, dated to the early 1st century BC. In addition, from a site near the Red River in the northern Vietnamese province of

Lao Cai __NOTOC__ Lao may refer to: Laos * Something of, from, or related to Laos, a country in Southeast Asia * Lao people (people from Laos, or of Lao descent) * The Lao language * Lao script, the writing system used to write the Lao language ** Lao ...

(borders with

Yunnan Yunnan , () is a landlocked province in the southwest of the People's Republic of China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 48.3 million (as of 2018). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the ...

), a glass bowl dated from late first century BC to early first century AD was recovered along with 40 ancient artifacts including seven Heger type I drums. At Óc Eo, then part of the

Kingdom of Funan Funan (; km, ហ៊្វូណន, ; vi, Phù Nam, Chữ Hán: ) was the name given by Chinese cartographers, geographers and writers to an ancient Indianized state—or, rather a loose network of states ''(Mandala)''—located in mainla ...

near Jiaozhi, Roman golden medallions made during the reign of

Antoninus Pius Antoninus Pius ( Latin: ''Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Pius''; 19 September 86 – 7 March 161) was Roman emperor from 138 to 161. He was the fourth of the Five Good Emperors from the Nerva–Antonine dynasty. Born into a senatori ...

and his successor Marcus Aurelius have been found. This may have been the port city of Kattigara described by Ptolemy, laying beyond the

Golden Chersonese The Golden Chersonese or Golden Khersonese ( grc, Χρυσῆ Χερσόνησος, ''Chrysḗ Chersónēsos''; la, Chersonesus Aurea), meaning the Golden Peninsula, was the name used for the Malay Peninsula by Greek and Roman geographers in c ...

(i.e.

Malay Peninsula The Malay Peninsula ( Malay: ''Semenanjung Tanah Melayu'') is a peninsula in Mainland Southeast Asia. The landmass runs approximately north–south, and at its terminus, it is the southernmost point of the Asian continental mainland. The ar ...

Notes

References

Sources

Articles

* * * * * * * *

Books

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Zürcher, Erik (2002): "Tidings from the South, Chinese Court Buddhism and Overseas Relations in the Fifth Century AD." Erik Zürcher in: ''A Life Journey to the East. Sinological Studies in Memory of Giuliano Bertuccioli (1923-2001)''. Edited by Antonio Forte and Federico Masini. Italian School of East Asian Studies. Kyoto. Essays: Volume 2, pp. 21–43.

External links

"The Southern Silk Roads" on Silk Roads Programme
{{coord missing, Vietnam Populated places along the Silk Road History of Vietnam Regions of Vietnam Historical regions of China Former commanderies of China in Vietnam Commanderies of the Han dynasty Commanderies of the Jin dynasty (266–420) Commanderies of the Southern dynasties Commanderies of the Sui dynasty