Ijaw people
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The Ijaw people, also known as the Izon people, are an ethnic group found in the Niger Delta region in Nigeria, with primary population clusters in Bayelsa,
Delta Delta commonly refers to: * Delta (letter) (Δ or δ), the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet * D (NATO phonetic alphabet: "Delta"), the fourth letter in the Latin alphabet * River delta, at a river mouth * Delta Air Lines, a major US carrier ...
, and
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. They also have significant population clusters in Edo,
Lagos Lagos ( ; ), or Lagos City, is a large metropolitan city in southwestern Nigeria. With an upper population estimated above 21 million dwellers, it is the largest city in Nigeria, the most populous urban area on the African continent, and on ...
, Ondo. and small parts of Akwa Ibom. The Ijaw people are located in about 29 of Nigeria’s 774 local government areas, primarily across six Nigerian states. Many are found as migrant fishermen in fishing camps and settlements in Benue, and Kogi states and as far west as
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,
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and as far east as
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. Census data from Nigeria’s National Population Commission recorded the Ijaw population at 5.3 million in 1991, making up 5.9% of the country’s 88.9 million people at the time. By 2006, their population had grown to 8.42 million, representing around 6% of Nigeria’s 140.4 million people. As of 2024, Nigeria’s Ijaw population is estimated to be approximately 14.39 million, accounting for 6.1% of Nigeria’s 233.9 million people, placing them as the fourth largest ethnic group in Nigeria. The Ijaw people are the largest ethnic group in Nigeria's Niger Delta region. They are also among the oldest tribes in Nigeria and are considered one of the world's most ancient peoples. Historically, the Ijaw have lived near key maritime trade routes and participated in trade activities as early as the late 14th and early 15th centuries. The Ijaw languages include about 20 closely related varieties, with Central Izon being the most widely spoken. Other languages in this group include Kalabari, Ogbia, Epie, Abua, Okrika, Andoni, Ibani, Nembe amongst others. The term Izon is commonly used as an endonym to describe the broader Ijaw ethnic nationality.


History


Origins

The Izon or Ijaw People have lived in the Niger Delta region since before the fifth millennium BCE, and they were able to keep a separate identity because they lived where the agriculturally dependent Benue-Kwa groups were unable to penetrate. Some of the earliest archeological findings of Ijaw tribes have been dated to as far back as the early 800s BCE. The timeline that the archaeological excavations provide offers about 3,000 years of evidence of Ijaw history and presence in the Niger Delta. There has been much argument about which tribe in Nigeria is the oldest. The Ijaws started inhabiting the Niger Delta region of what is now Nigeria as far back as 800 BCE, thus making them one of the world's most ancient peoples. They have existed as a distinct language and
ethnic group An ethnicity or ethnic group is a group of people with shared attributes, which they collectively believe to have, and long-term endogamy. Ethnicities share attributes like language, culture, common sets of ancestry, traditions, society, re ...
for over 5,000 years. Agadagba-bou, the first ancient Ijaw city-state, existed for more than 400 years, lasting until 1050 CE. Due to internal conflict and violent weather patterns, this city-state was abandoned. Some of the descendants of this city-state created another in the 11th century called Isoma-bou, which lasted until the 16th century. This city-state, like the last, was founded in the Central Delta Wilberforce Island region. The Wilberforce Island region remains the most Ijaw-populated area of Nigeria. The Ijaws are believed by some to be the descendants of an autochthonous people or an ancient tribe of Africa known as the Oru; the Ijaws were originally known by this name (Oru). These were believed to be the aboriginal people of West Africa and the region of Niger/Benue.


Development

The Ijo people had about 51 different clans and were trading amongst themselves. Their settlements in the Bini region, lower Niger and the Niger Delta were aboriginal (i.e. the Ijaw being the first settlers). They are known to be exceptional sea people. In the 12th century, the number of Ijaw states grew, and by the 16th century, the Ijaws formed a number of powerful kingdoms with strong central rule. The Ijaw economy was predominantly supported by fishing, and each clustered group claimed a specific culture and autonomy from the others. They were among the first people in Nigeria to come in contact with Europeans, the earliest explorers arriving in the early 15th century. After contact with European merchants around 1500 CE, communities began trading in enslaved people as middlemen while they also traded in palm oil. Traders who amassed wealth within this business market found themselves parading power over the government. Each trader purchased as many enslaved people as possible, valuing ability over genetic kinship as most enslaved people's families were split apart and not valued for their rich culture and heritage. Because an able enslaved person could inherit the business of a trader with no heir, it was possible to have non-Ijaw leaders acculturate as Ijaw; such a leader was King Jaja of Opobo. The Ijaw people bought slaves from
Igboland Igbo land ( Standard ) is a cultural and common linguistic region in southeastern Nigeria which is the indigenous homeland of the Igbo people. Geographically, it is divided into two sections, eastern (the larger of the two) and western. Its popu ...
, one of whom was Jaja ( born: ''Jubo Jubogha''), who was originally an Igbo man and who was bought by the Ibanis of Bonny. He later earned his way out of slavery and was renamed Jaja. Historically, various Ijaw clans engaged in the practice of acquiring slaves for purposes such as gifting to newlyweds and showcasing wealth. However, the Ijaws' approach to slavery differed from many other cultures. As stated above, they permitted slaves to earn their freedom after a specified period of service, and it was common for Ijaw men to marry enslaved women, granting them freedom through marriage. This practice facilitated social mobility and led to some Ijaw clans having remote Igbo ancestry due to these unions. Overall, the Ijaws' participation in the slave trade reflects a more integrated and complex relationship between the two cultures. The Nembe Ijo people were the first Ijaws to fight and win a battle against the Europeans. Though a short lived victory, a huge precedent was set by way of this. King Frederick William Koko (Mingi VIII) of the Nembe-Brass Kingdom (1853–1898) led a successful attack on the British Royal Niger Company trading post in 1895. King Koko also took over 40 British people as hostages, whom he later allegedly ate. King Koko was offered a settlement for his grievances, but he  found the terms unacceptable. After some reprisal attacks by the British, his capital was ransacked. King Koko fled, and so was deposed by the British. He died in exile in 1898.


Language

The Ijaws speak several closely related Niger-Congo languages, all of which belong to the Ijoid branch of the Niger-Congo tree. The primary division between the Ijo languages is that between Eastern Ijo and Central Ijo, the most important of the former group of languages being Izon, which is spoken by about nine million people. There are two prominent groupings of the Ijaw language. The first, termed Central Izon (Ijaw) consists of central Ijaw speakers: Tuomo Clan, Egbema, Ekeremor, Sagbama (Ogobiri-Mein), Bassan, Apoi, Arogbo, Boma (Bumo), Kabo (Kabuowei), Ogboin, Tarakiri, and Kolokuma-Opokuma. Nembe, Kalabari, Ibani, okrika, Ogbia,
Brass Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, in proportions which can be varied to achieve different colours and mechanical, electrical, acoustic and chemical properties, but copper typically has the larger proportion, generally copper and zinc. I ...
and Akassa (Akaha) dialects represent South-eastern Ijo (Izon). Buseni, Epie and Okordia dialects are considered Inland Ijo/Central Ijo It was discovered in the 1980s that a now extinct Berbice Creole Dutch, spoken in Guyana, is partly based on Ijo
lexicon A lexicon (plural: lexicons, rarely lexica) is the vocabulary of a language or branch of knowledge (such as nautical or medical). In linguistics, a lexicon is a language's inventory of lexemes. The word ''lexicon'' derives from Greek word () ...
and
grammar In linguistics, grammar is the set of rules for how a natural language is structured, as demonstrated by its speakers or writers. Grammar rules may concern the use of clauses, phrases, and words. The term may also refer to the study of such rul ...
. Its nearest relative seems to be Eastern Ijo, most likely Kalabari.


Groups

The Ijaw people can be categorized into three primary groups: Central Ijaw (Ijo), Eastern Ijaw (Ijo), and Western Ijaw (Ijo).


Central Ijaw (Ijo)

The Central Ijaw group comprises various clans, subgroups and languages: * Ogbia subgroup: This subgroup is native to the Ogbia people of
Bayelsa State Bayelsa is a state in the South South region of Nigeria, located in the core of the Niger Delta. Bayelsa State was created in 1996 and was carved out from Rivers State, making it one of the newest states in the federation. The capital, Yenag ...
. The Ogbia subgroup has four clans namely; Abureni Clan, Anyama Clan, Kolo Creek Clan and Oloibiri Clan. It includes numerous communities such as Kolo, Oloibiri, Anyama-Ogbia, Okodi, Epebu, Ewoma, Onuebum, Emadike, Opume, Ogbia Town, Emakalakala or Amakalakala, Otokpein, Otuedu, Otuoke, Immiringi, Otuogidi, Elebele and others. They primarily speak the ogbia language, an ijoid language. * Epie-Atisa Subgroup: Includes the Epie and Atisa people, also in Bayelsa. Communities include; Agudama, Okutukutu, Onopa, swali, Akenfa, Tombia, Akenpai, Igbogene and others. They primarily speak the epie dialect, an ijoid language. *Ijaw central subgroup: Found in areas such as Ekeremor, Sagbama (Kumbo), Amassoma, Apoi clan, Arogbo clan, Boma (Bumo), Kabo (Kabuowei), Olodiama, Ogboin, Tarakiri, Kolokuma-Opokuma, Tungbo, Patani, Bomadi, Tuomo, and others, predominantly in Bayelsa and Delta. They speak the central ijaw dialect, an ijoid language. The Apoi clan, also known as the Eastern Apoi clan clan is relatively small and geographically secluded. Their settlements include Keme-ebiama, Kolokologbene, Ogboinbiri, Sampou, Gbaran, Kassama, and Azama. * Nembe-Brass subgroup: Found in Nembe, Bassambri, Ogbolomabiri,
Brass Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, in proportions which can be varied to achieve different colours and mechanical, electrical, acoustic and chemical properties, but copper typically has the larger proportion, generally copper and zinc. I ...
, Akassa (Akaha) and other areas in Nembe and Brass LGA of Bayelsa. They primarily speak the nembe dialect, an ijoid language. The Nembe-Brass kingdom is one of the ancient ijaw kingdom's and city State. They were the first to defeat the British under the reign of King Frederick William Koko (Mingi VIII) of the Nembe-Brass Kingdom (1853–1898). * Abua subgroup: Found in Abua/Odual LGA of in Rivers State. They primarily speak the Abua dialect, an ijoid dialect. The Abua and Odual dialect bears similarities with the ogbia dialect. Other Central Ijaw subgroups include the Biseni people, Akinima, Mbiama, Egbema, Engeni, and some communities in the Ahoada East region of Rivers State.


Eastern Ijaw (Ijo)

The Eastern Ijaw group is mainly found in Rivers and Akwa Ibom States. In Rivers State, the Ijaws occupy around 11 local government areas. They are: Abua/Odual, Ahoada West, Akuku Toru, Andoni, Asari Toru, Bonny, Degema, Okrika, Ogu-Bolo, Opobo/Nkoro, and Port Harcourt. Residual populations are also present in Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni local Government Area. In Akwa Ibom, the Ijaws, primarily of Andoni-Obolo clan, inhabit areas near the Rivers State border, with populations in Ibeno, Inua Eyet Ikot, Eastern Obolo and surrounding locations. Some Eastern Ijo clans and communities include; * Kalabari subgroup: Found in areas such as
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, Buguma, Krakrama, Kula, Degema, Bille, and others. The Kalabari share close ancestry with the Nembe and Ogbia subgroups. * Okrika subgroup (Wakirike/Wakrikese): Includes the Ogu and Okrika (Wakrikese) people, as well as areas in Port Harcourt South. This subgroup shares ancestry with the Amassoma people in Bayelsa. Communities include Azuabie, Bolo, Dikibo-ama, George-ama, Ibaka, Ibuluya, Isaka, Kalio-ama, Oba-ama, Ogboloma, Ogu, Okrika, Okujagu-ama, Waka-ama, and others. * Opobo and Nkoro (Ibani Ijaw): Located near Port Harcourt South, this subgroup migrated from Bonny following internal conflicts. Communities include Abasibea, Bragadappa, Epiema, Kala-Ibiama, Kalama, Nkoro, Kwenima, Ohankalansunugu, Okuminima,
Opobo Opobo is a community in Rivers state, South South region of Nigeria that was founded in 1870 . The people of Opobo are a mixture of the Ndoki tribe, Ndoki clan of the Igbo people and the Ibani clan of the Ijaw ethnic group. Their native languages ...
, and others. They speak the ibani dialect, an ijoid language. * Bonny and Finima (Ibani Ijaw): Sharing close ancestry with the Nembe-Brass, Bonny is one of the ancient Ijaw kingdoms and city-states. Towns include Abalama, Abalambie, Bonny, Borokiri, Finima, Oloma, Peterside, and others. They speak the Ibani dialect, an Ijoid language. * Andoni and Obolo subgroups: The Obolo people are part of the Andoni-Obolo Clan and have a significant population in Eastern Obolo and Ibeno regions of
Akwa Ibom State Akwa Ibom is a States of Nigeria, state in the South South, South-South geopolitical zone of Nigeria. It borders Cross River State to the east, Rivers State and Abia State to the west and north-west, and the Atlantic Ocean to the south. The state ...
, with a more central presence in Rivers State. Communities include Glilea, Ibotirem, Ibotobom, Ibotokpon, Ichama, Igbanga, Ikuru Town, Ilotombi, Inyoukpo, Isidum, Isioke, Isiokwana, Aama-Runner, Aam-Ekut, Afradiki, Agana, Aganofor, Agbachichama, Ajakajak, Akaradi Province, Ama, Ama Esuuk, Ama Jaba, Ama Ngere, Ama Sunday, Amanku, Amansa, Amaoke, Amatamuno, Anyama, Anyama-Aganna, Anyamaboko, Asakokolo, Asarama, Asuk-Ama, Asuk-Oyet, and many more. * Port Harcourt south: This area, on the border between Ijaw and Ikwerre territories, contains significant indigenous Ijaw populations in Borokiri, Diobu, Aggrey, Marine Base, Eastern Bypass, and the riverine areas. Residual Ijaw populations can also be found in Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni LGA of Rivers State. These populations are a result of migrations during the 1980s and 1990s.


Western Ijaw (Ijo)

The Western Ijaws are located in
Delta Delta commonly refers to: * Delta (letter) (Δ or δ), the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet * D (NATO phonetic alphabet: "Delta"), the fourth letter in the Latin alphabet * River delta, at a river mouth * Delta Air Lines, a major US carrier ...
, Ondo, and Edo States. Their presence in Ondo and Edo States can be attributed to migrations that occoured around the 9th Century CE. * Arogbo and Apoi subgroup: In
Ondo State Ondo () is a States of Nigeria, state in Points of the compass, southwestern Nigeria. It was created on 3 February 1976 from the former Western State (Nigeria), Western State. Ondo borders Ekiti State to the north, Kogi State to the northeast fo ...
, the Arogbo clan, a subgroup of the Ijaw, traces its ancestry to migrations from the Arogbo clan and Ujo-Gbaraun town in the Central Ijaw region, now located in present-day
Bayelsa State Bayelsa is a state in the South South region of Nigeria, located in the core of the Niger Delta. Bayelsa State was created in 1996 and was carved out from Rivers State, making it one of the newest states in the federation. The capital, Yenag ...
. In the 9th century AD, members of the Arogbo clan and the Eastern Apoi clan later migrated to regions in south-east Ondo state to form the Western Apoi clan and the Arogbo clan. Their journey included a brief stop at Oporoza, led by Eji, his brother Perebiyenmo, and their sister Fiyepatei, before moving to Ukparomo, now known as Akpata, Opuba, Ajapa, and Ukpe. They settled there for a period, roughly spanning the reign of two Agadagbas (military priest-rulers of the Egbesu shrine), before establishing their current settlement and forming the Arogbo Ibe. These groups, collectively known as the Ijaw Apoi or Apoi, inhabit areas within Ese-Odo Local Government Area. Their settlements include Igbobini, Ojuala, Ikpoke, Inikorogha, Oboro, Shabomi, Adolesemo I, Taribo, Adolesemo II, Ajapa, Akpata, Arogbo, Beleowo-Zion, Biagbene, Igbotu, Kiribo, Gbekebo, and others. Their kings are known as Agadagbas. Historically, the Apoi Ijaws lived on higher ground compared to other Ijaw clans and are unique in speaking both Yoruba and Ijaw languages. Geographically, they share borders with the Ikale to the north and the Ilaje to the west. The clan also shares border with the Arogbo Ijaw to the south of Ondo and the Furupagha Ijaw to the east across the Siloko River. These communities have retained their distinct cultural heritage while integrating with their surrounding environments. * Ijaw Central subgroup: The Ijaw celtral subgroup are found predominantly in Bayelsa and Delta states. In
Delta State Delta is a States of Nigeria, state in the South South (Nigeria), South-South geopolitical zone of Nigeria. Named after the Niger Delta—a large part of which is in the state—the state was formed from the former Bendel State, on 27 August 1 ...
, they comprise clans and towns such as Isaba, Kabo, Tuomo, Kumbo, Bomadi, Patani, Warri South, Warri North, Ogbe-Ijo, Operemo, Seimbiri, Tarakiri-West, Egbema, Ogulagha, Gbaramatu, and others. The Ijaws are present in six local government areas in Delta State: Bomadi, Burutu, Patani, Warri North, Warri South, and Warri West. Warri serves as a border region for the Ijaws, Urhobos, and Itsekiris. Historically, the old township of Warri was originally known as Ogbo-Ijo (Ogbe-Ijo). Some prominent Ijaw towns in Warri include Oporoama, Oporoza, Opuwedei, Opuwedeibubo, Pepegbene, Tebijo, Ubafan, Opuama, Warri (Iselema), Ajama, Benikurukuru, Binitu, Bumobolou, Diebiri, Okerenkoko (Ekerenkoko), Ifhama, Ikantu, Ikpokpowu, and others. * Ijo clans in Edo state: In
Edo State Edo State, Edo, officially known as Edo State, is a States of Nigeria, state in the South South, South-South Geopolitical zones of Nigeria, geopolitical zone of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. As of 2024, the state was ranked as the List of Ni ...
, the Ijaw initially settled in an area called Ikoro. Their rulers, known as ''Peres'' and ''Agadagbas'', are believed to have predated the Benin monarchy. The term ''Pere'' means "king" in some Ijaw languages. In Edo, the Ijaws are found in parts of the Ovia Southeast Local Government Area, with clans including Egbema, Furupagha, Olodiama-West, and Okomu-Ijaw (Ukomu). Some towns and communities in this area include Abere, Ajakurama, Ajatitition, Ayakoroma, Binidogha, Gbelebu, Gbelekanga, Ikoro, Ikusangha, Inekorogha, Ingileuba, Itagbene, Ofoniama (Ofunama), Okomu-Ijaw (Ukomu), Siluko, Turukubu, Zide, and others.


Clans


Traditional occupations

The Ijaws were one of the first of Nigeria's peoples to have contact with Westerners and were active as go-betweens in the trade between visiting
Europeans Europeans are the focus of European ethnology, the field of anthropology related to the various ethnic groups that reside in the states of Europe. Groups may be defined by common ancestry, language, faith, historical continuity, etc. There are ...
and the peoples of the interior, particularly in the era before the discovery of
quinine Quinine is a medication used to treat malaria and babesiosis. This includes the treatment of malaria due to ''Plasmodium falciparum'' that is resistant to chloroquine when artesunate is not available. While sometimes used for nocturnal leg ...
, when
West Africa West Africa, also known as Western Africa, is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations geoscheme for Africa#Western Africa, United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Gha ...
was still known as the "White Man's Graveyard" because of the endemic presence of
malaria Malaria is a Mosquito-borne disease, mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects vertebrates and ''Anopheles'' mosquitoes. Human malaria causes Signs and symptoms, symptoms that typically include fever, Fatigue (medical), fatigue, vomitin ...
, fever and heat. Some of the kin-based trading lineages that arose among the Ijaws developed into substantial corporations which were known as " houses"; each house had an elected leader as well as a fleet of war canoes for use in protecting trade and fighting rivals. The other main occupation common among the Ijaws has traditionally been fishing and farming. Being a maritime people, many Ijaws were employed in the merchant shipping sector in the early and mid-20th century (pre-Nigerian Independence). With the advent of oil and gas exploration in their territory, some are now employed in that sector. Another major occupation is service in the
civil service The civil service is a collective term for a sector of government composed mainly of career civil service personnel hired rather than elected, whose institutional tenure typically survives transitions of political leadership. A civil service offic ...
sector of the Nigerian states of Bayelsa and
River A river is a natural stream of fresh water that flows on land or inside Subterranean river, caves towards another body of water at a lower elevation, such as an ocean, lake, or another river. A river may run dry before reaching the end of ...
s, where they are predominant. Extensive state-government sponsored overseas
scholarship A scholarship is a form of Student financial aid, financial aid awarded to students for further education. Generally, scholarships are awarded based on a set of criteria such as academic merit, Multiculturalism, diversity and inclusion, athleti ...
programs in the 1970s and 1980s have also led to a significant presence of Ijaw
professionals A professional is a member of a profession or any person who works in a specified professional activity. The term also describes the standards of education and training that prepare members of the profession with the particular knowledge and ski ...
in Europe and North America (the so-called Ijaw diaspora). Another contributing factor to this human capital flight is the abject poverty in their homeland of the Niger Delta, resulting from decades of neglect by the Nigerian government and oil companies in spite of continuous petroleum prospecting in this region since the 1950s.


Lifestyle

The Ijaw people live by fishing supplemented by farming paddy-
rice Rice is a cereal grain and in its Domestication, domesticated form is the staple food of over half of the world's population, particularly in Asia and Africa. Rice is the seed of the grass species ''Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice)—or, much l ...
, plantains,
Cassava ''Manihot esculenta'', common name, commonly called cassava, manioc, or yuca (among numerous regional names), is a woody shrub of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, native to South America, from Brazil, Paraguay and parts of the Andes. Although ...
, yams, cocoyams,
banana A banana is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large treelike herbaceous flowering plants in the genus '' Musa''. In some countries, cooking bananas are called plantains, distinguishing the ...
s and other vegetables as well as tropical fruits such as
guava Guava ( ), also known as the 'guava-pear', is a common tropical fruit cultivated in many tropical and subtropical regions. The common guava '' Psidium guajava'' (lemon guava, apple guava) is a small tree in the myrtle family (Myrtaceae), nativ ...
, mangoes and
pineapple The pineapple (''Ananas comosus'') is a Tropical vegetation, tropical plant with an edible fruit; it is the most economically significant plant in the family Bromeliaceae. The pineapple is indigenous to South America, where it has been culti ...
s; and trading. Smoke-dried fish,
timber Lumber is wood that has been processed into uniform and useful sizes (dimensional lumber), including beams and planks or boards. Lumber is mainly used for construction framing, as well as finishing (floors, wall panels, window frames). ...
, palm oil and palm kernels are processed for export. While some clans (those to the east- Akassa, Nembe, Bille, Kalabari, Nkoro, Okrika, Andoni and Bonny) had powerful kings and a stratified society, some clans are believed not to have had any centralized confederacies until the arrival of the British. Individual communities in the western Niger Delta also had chiefs and governments at the village level. For women, there are traditional rights of passage throughout life, marked with iria ceremonies.
Funeral A funeral is a ceremony connected with the final disposition of a corpse, such as a burial or cremation, with the attendant observances. Funerary customs comprise the complex of beliefs and practices used by a culture to remember and respect th ...
ceremonies, particularly for those who have accumulated wealth and respect, are often very dramatic. Traditional religious practices center around "Water spirits" in the Niger river, and around tribute to ancestors.


Marriages

Marriages among the Ijaw clans are vibrant, lively, and share many cultural similarities. The Ijaw traditional wedding ceremony is a grand celebration that showcases the beauty and diversity of Ijaw culture. The marriage process typically culminates in the payment of a bridal
dowry A dowry is a payment such as land, property, money, livestock, or a commercial asset that is paid by the bride's (woman's) family to the groom (man) or his family at the time of marriage. Dowry contrasts with the related concepts of bride price ...
, which increases if the bride comes from a royal family. Unlike many other ethnic groups, the Ijaws observe two distinct types of marriage. The first type of marriage, known as the small-dowry marriage, involves the groom making an initial payment to the bride’s family. This payment typically includes cash, traditional beads, and items such as a canoe and fabrics like ''Ankara, Hollandis, or George,'' among other items. However, the cash portion of the dowry is not paid in full upfront. When the bride’s father passes away, the groom is expected to pay the remaining cash balance as part of his contribution to the funeral expenses. In this marriage system, children trace their lineage through either their mother’s or father’s side, allowing them the freedom to choose which heritage, culture, and traditions they wish to follow as they grow older. They can identify with both parents' ethnic backgrounds and live with either family. This form of marriage is the most common and widely practiced across all Ijaw clans. The second type, known as the large-dowry marriage, involves a significantly higher dowry, and in this case, the children are considered to belong to the father's family. However, this form of marriage is rarely practiced. A distinctive feature of the Ijaw traditional wedding ceremony is the bride’s expectation to remain composed and unemotional until she is fully satisfied with the gifts presented by the groom and his family. During this rite, the groom showers the bride with money and valuable items, and she only smiles once she is content with the gifts. This tradition serves as a test of the groom’s love and commitment, as he must prove his ability to provide for her and make her happy. It also serves as a challenge to the bride, demonstrating that she is not easily swayed by material wealth and values her dignity and pride. Another important aspect of the Ijaw wedding celebration is the ''Bibife'', a feast hosted by the bride's family. This event includes lively music, dancing, and performances, marking the joyous union of the couple and celebrating their new life together.


Cultural attires

The traditional attire of the Ijaw people reflects both elegance and cultural significance, incorporating rich fabrics and intricate accessories that showcase their heritage. For Ijaw men, the ''Etibo'' shirt serves as the main garment, typically made from materials like linen, cotton, or brocade. Its high neck and embroidery give it a distinguished look, often worn over a wrapper or trousers. The ''George wrapper'', a long piece of luxurious fabric such as ''Hollandis or George'', is tied around the waist and drapes elegantly to the ankles or knees, often adorned with intricate patterns. Men complete their look with a hat, such as a fedora or bowler, adding a touch of sophistication. They also carry a walking stick, typically made from wood and designed with intricate carvings, which adds an element of status. Coral beads in the form of necklaces and bracelets (called ''Ibolo'') are often worn as accessories, symbolizing wealth and social standing. Ijaw women's traditional attire is equally stunning. The blouse is a loose-fitting, long-sleeved garment that is often richly embroidered. Paired with it are wrappers, typically two pieces made from ''Ankara, Hollandis, or George fabrics'', which can be matched or contrasted with the blouse. The headgear, usually a stiff fabric head tie, is an essential part of the outfit, worn in various stylish formations to complement the blouse and wrappers. Like the men, women wear coral beads—necklaces, bracelets, and earrings—that denote both beauty and social status, completing the look. In addition to the Etibo, George, and other common attire, the Ijaw people also wear special traditional garments such as the ''Namatibi/Feni, Peletebite, Don, and Ojubulu attires''. The Don outfit, in particular, holds royal significance. Historically, it was worn primarily by royals and high-ranking individuals. The Don ensemble was heavy on the body and featured an elaborate display of wealth, including a cache of jewels, expensive beads,
gold Gold is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol Au (from Latin ) and atomic number 79. In its pure form, it is a brightness, bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal. Chemically, gold is a transition metal ...
studs, and other coral ornaments. This attire was completed with a stylish hat, further emphasizing the wearer's elevated status. The Don dress was not just a garment, but a powerful symbol of power, prestige, and the cultural heritage of the Ijaw people. Together, these attires not only display the Ijaw people’s taste for elegance but also emphasize the importance of social hierarchy, beauty, and tradition within their culture. The different garments and accessories worn by both men and women reflect the rich history, cultural pride, and social standing that the Ijaw people continue to uphold.


Religion and cultural practices

Although the Ijaw are now primarily
Christians A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the world. The words '' Christ'' and ''C ...
(65% profess to be), with
Roman Catholicism The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
, Zion Church,
Anglicanism Anglicanism, also known as Episcopalianism in some countries, is a Western Christianity, Western Christian tradition which developed from the practices, liturgy, and identity of the Church of England following the English Reformation, in the ...
and
Pentecostalism Pentecostalism or classical Pentecostalism is a movement within the broader Evangelical wing of Protestantism, Protestant Christianity that emphasizes direct personal experience of God in Christianity, God through Baptism with the Holy Spirit#Cl ...
being the varieties of Christianity most prevalent among them, they also have elaborate traditional religious practices of their own. Traditionally, the Ijaws hold celebrations to honour the spirits that last for several days. The highlight of these festivals is the role of masquerades. Veneration of ancestors plays a central role in Ijaw traditional religion, while water spirits, known as ''Owuamapu'', also figure prominently in the Ijaw pantheon. In addition, the Ijaw practice a form of
divination Divination () is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic ritual or practice. Using various methods throughout history, diviners ascertain their interpretations of how a should proceed by reading signs, ...
called ''Igbadai'', which involves recently deceased individuals being interrogated on the causes of their death. Ijaw religious beliefs hold that the ''owuamapu'' are like humans in having personal strengths and shortcomings, and that humans dwell among these water spirits before being born. The role of prayer in the traditional Ijaw system of belief is to maintain the living in the good graces of the ''owuamapu'', among whom they dwelt before being born into this world, and each year the Ijaw hold celebrations to honour the spirits lasting for several days. The Ijaw people are known for many of their cultural festivals and ceremonies. These festivals often involve wrestling, boat racing, and traditional dances. Also central to the festivities is the role of masquerades, in which men wearing elaborate outfits and carved masks dance to the beat of drums and manifest the influence of the water spirits through the quality and intensity of their dancing. Particularly spectacular masqueraders are taken to actually be in the possession of the particular spirits on whose behalf they are dancing. Important deities in the Ijaw religion include Egbesu, whose totems are the leopard, panther, and
lion The lion (''Panthera leo'') is a large Felidae, cat of the genus ''Panthera'', native to Sub-Saharan Africa and India. It has a muscular, broad-chested body (biology), body; a short, rounded head; round ears; and a dark, hairy tuft at the ...
, and who manifests as a god of war, protection and of
justice In its broadest sense, justice is the idea that individuals should be treated fairly. According to the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', the most plausible candidate for a core definition comes from the ''Institutes (Justinian), Inst ...
. Many of the Ijaws are warriors, and often offer veneration to Egbesu as a god of war as well. At the sound of the Asawana''', the Ijaw warrior readies himself for war using Egbesu as a shield. One of Egbesu's prime laws is that an Ijaw person should not be the cause of the problem, or the one to start the fight, but should respond only when he or she must. This is a manifestation of the Ijaw virtue of
patience or forbearance, is the ability to endure difficult or undesired long-term circumstances. Patience involves perseverance or tolerance in the face of delay, provocation, or stress without responding negatively, such as reacting with disrespect ...
. There are also a small number of
converts to Islam The following is a list of notable people who Muslim convert, converted to Islam from a different religion or Irreligion, no religion ''(who have individual Wikipedia articles)''. This article addresses only past professions of faith by the in ...
, the most notable being the founder of the Delta People Volunteer Force Mujahid Dokubo-Asari.


Food customs

Like many ethnic groups in Nigeria, the Ijaws have many local foods that are not widespread in Nigeria. Many of these foods involve fish and other seafoods such as clams, oysters and periwinkles; yams and plantains. Some of these foods are: *Polofiyai — A very rich soup made with yams and palm oil. *Kekefiyai— A pottage made with chopped unripened (green) plantains, fish, other seafood or
game A game is a structured type of play usually undertaken for entertainment or fun, and sometimes used as an educational tool. Many games are also considered to be work (such as professional players of spectator sports or video games) or art ...
meat Meat is animal Tissue (biology), tissue, often muscle, that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and farmed other animals for meat since prehistory. The Neolithic Revolution allowed the domestication of vertebrates, including chickens, sheep, ...
("
bushmeat Bushmeat is meat from wildlife species that are Hunting, hunted for human consumption. Bushmeat represents a primary source of animal protein and a cash-earning commodity in poor and rural communities of humid tropical forest regions of the worl ...
") and palm oil. *Fried or roasted fish and plantain — Fish fried in palm oil and served with fried plantains. *Gbe — The grub of the raffia-palm tree beetle that is eaten raw, dried, fried in groundnut oil or pickled in palm oil. *Kalabari "sea-harvest" fulo— A rich mixed seafood soup or stew that is eaten with foofoo, rice or yams. *Owafiya (bean pottage) — A pottage made with
Beans A bean is the seed of some plants in the legume family (Fabaceae) used as a vegetable for human consumption or animal feed. The seeds are often preserved through drying (a ''pulse''), but fresh beans are also sold. Dried beans are tradition ...
, palm oil, fish or bushmeat, Yam or Plantain. It is taken with processed Cassava or Starch. *Geisha soup — This a kind of soup cooked from the geisha fish; it is made with pepper, salt, water and boiling it for some minutes. *Opuru-fulou — Also referred to as prawn soup, prepared mainly with prawn, Ogbono ( Irvingia gabonensis seeds), dried fish, table salt, crayfish, onions, fresh pepper, and red palm oil. *Yellow soup - Made with fresh fish (mostly
catfish Catfish (or catfishes; order (biology), order Siluriformes or Nematognathi) are a diverse group of ray-finned fish. Catfish are common name, named for their prominent barbel (anatomy), barbels, which resemble a cat's whiskers, though not ...
) and fresh pepper and red palm oil and thickened with garri or biscuits. Sometimes fresh tomatoes can be added to the soup, to thicken it and add additional flavour. * Onunu - Made with pounded yams and boiled overripe plantains. It is mostly enjoyed by the Okrikans *Kiri-gina — Prepared without cooking on fire with Ogbono ( Irvingia gabonensis seeds), dried fish, table salt, crayfish. *Ignabeni — A watery soup prepared with either yam or plantain seasoned with teabush leaves, pepper, goat meat, and fish. *Pilo-garri — A Bille meal mostly eaten during the raining season. It is prepared with dry garri, red palm oil, salt and eaten with roasted seafoods (fish, Isemi, Ngbe, Ikoli, etc.). *Igbugbai fiyai - A soup prepared without oil, only fish, onion, periwinkle, Bush leaves and other seafood. This soup, once prepared, is mostly eaten by Odimodi people. *Kpanfaranran ry fiyai'' A soup prepared by frying the palm oil before adding your fish, meat, crayfish, periwinkle, and other seafood. This food is mostly cooked by the Odimodi people.


Ethnic identity

Formerly organized into several loose clusters of villages or confederacies, the Ijaw people were autonomous groups that cooperated primarily for defense against outsiders. These groups were united by shared cultural practices and a common language, but each maintained its independence. Over time, however, the Ijaw increasingly view themselves as part of a single, coherent nation—the Izon Nation—bound together by language, culture, and shared history. This sense of unity has been significantly strengthened by the environmental degradations that have followed the exploitation of oil in the Niger Delta region, the ancestral homeland of the Ijaw. The region, rich in oil reserves, has suffered extensive environmental damage, including oil spills, gas flaring, and deforestation, which have had devastating effects on the local way of life. The Ijaw have also been frustrated by a revenue-sharing formula with the Nigerian Federal Government, which they perceive as unjust, with a disproportionate share of the nation's wealth flowing to other regions while the Niger Delta remains impoverished and environmentally degraded. These grievances have fueled a growing sense of injustice and have been a catalyst for numerous high-profile clashes with the Nigerian authorities, including kidnappings, protests, and violent confrontations. In many of these incidents, lives have been lost, and the Ijaw people's struggle for fairness and recognition has drawn both national and international attention. The Ijaw people are resilient and proud, with a deep historical connection to the land and water. Long before the colonial era, the Ijaw were known for their seafaring abilities, traveling by wooden boats and canoes to distant lands, including Cameroon, Ghana, and other parts of West Africa. They navigated the vast rivers of the region, including traveling up the River Niger from the River Nun, a significant waterway that continues to hold cultural and spiritual importance. The Ijaw’s maritime skills and extensive trade networks are a testament to their adaptability, resourcefulness, and the depth of their cultural heritage, which endures despite the challenges they face today.


Ijaw–Itsekiri conflicts

One manifestation of ethnic violence on the part of the Ijaw has been an increase in the number and severity of clashes between Ijaw militants and those of Itsekiri origin, particularly in the town of Warri. Deadly conflicts had rocked the South-South region, especially in
Delta State Delta is a States of Nigeria, state in the South South (Nigeria), South-South geopolitical zone of Nigeria. Named after the Niger Delta—a large part of which is in the state—the state was formed from the former Bendel State, on 27 August 1 ...
, where intertribal killings had resulted in death on both sides. In July 2013, local police discovered mutilated corpses of 13 Itsekiris killed by Ijaws, over a dispute on a candidate for a local council chairman. Several Itsekiri villages, including Gbokoda, Udo, Ajamita, Obaghoro and Ayerode-Zion on the Benin river axis, were razed down while several Itsekiris lost their lives.


Oil conflict

The December 1998 All Ijaw Youths Conference crystallized the struggle with the formation of the Ijaw Youth Movement (IYM) and the issuing of the Kaiama Declaration. In it, long-held Ijaw concerns about the loss of control of their homeland and their own lives to the oil companies were joined with a commitment to direct action. In the declaration, and in a letter to the companies, the Ijaws called for oil companies to suspend operations and withdraw from Ijaw territory. The IYM pledged “to struggle peacefully for freedom, self-determination and ecological justice,” and prepared a campaign of celebration, prayer, and direct action 'Operation Climate Change' beginning December 28, 1998. In December 1998, two warships and 10–15,000 Nigerian troops occupied Bayelsa and Delta states as the Ijaw Youth Movement (IYM) mobilized for Operation Climate Change. Soldiers entering the Bayelsa state capital of Yenagoa announced they had come to attack the youths trying to stop the oil companies. On the morning of December 30, 1998, two thousand young people processed through Yenagoa, dressed in black, singing and dancing. Soldiers opened fire with rifles, machine guns, and tear gas, killing at least three protesters and arresting twenty-five more. After a march demanding the release of those detained was turned back by soldiers, three more protesters were shot dead. The head of Yenagoa rebels - Chief Oweikuro Ibe - was burned alive in his mansion on December 28, 1998. Amongst his family members to flee the premises before the complete destruction was his only son, Desmond Ibe. The military declared a state of emergency throughout Bayelsa state, imposed a dusk-to-dawn curfew, and banned meetings. At military roadblocks, local residents were severely beaten or detained. At night, soldiers invaded private homes, terrorizing residents with beatings and women and girls with rape. On January 4, 1999, about one hundred soldiers from the military base at Chevron’s Escravos facility attacked Opia and Ikiyan, two Ijaw communities in Delta State. Bright Pablogba, the traditional leader of Ikiyan, who came to the river to negotiate with the soldiers, was shot along with a seven-year-old girl and possibly dozens of others. Of the approximately 1,000 people living in the two villages, four people were found dead and sixty-two were still missing months after the attack. The same soldiers set the villages ablaze, destroyed canoes and fishing equipment, killed livestock, and destroyed churches and religious shrines. Nonetheless, Operation
Climate Change Present-day climate change includes both global warming—the ongoing increase in Global surface temperature, global average temperature—and its wider effects on Earth's climate system. Climate variability and change, Climate change in ...
continued, and disrupted Nigerian oil supplies through much of 1999 by turning off valves through Ijaw territory. In the context of high conflict between the Ijaw and the Nigerian Federal Government (and its police and army), the military carried out the Odi massacre, killing scores if not hundreds of Ijaws. Recent actions by Ijaws against the oil industry have included both renewed efforts at nonviolent action and militarized attacks on oil installations but with no human casualties to foreign oil workers despite hostage-takings. These attacks are usually in response to non-fulfilment by oil companies of memoranda of understanding with their host communities.


Notable people

* Goodluck Jonathan, politician and 14th President of Nigeria * J.P. Clark, poet and playwright * Gabriel Okara, poet and novelist * Owoye Andrew Azazi, a former Nigerian Chief of Defense Staff and National Security Adviser * Patience Faka Jonathan, First Lady Of Nigeria (2010-2015) * King Frederick William Koko, (Mingi VIII) King of Nembe-
Brass Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, in proportions which can be varied to achieve different colours and mechanical, electrical, acoustic and chemical properties, but copper typically has the larger proportion, generally copper and zinc. I ...
Kingdom (1853–1898) * Olu Benson Lulu-Briggs OON, (1930-2018) businessman and elder statesman * Timi Dakolo, Nigerian singer-songwriter * Ibinabo Fiberesima, Nigerian Nollywood actress * Ben Murray-Bruce, Nigerian media mogul and senator * Ebikabowei Victor Ben, MEND general * Kingsley Kuku, former chairman, Niger Delta presidential amnesty program * Eruani Azibapu Godbless, businessman and former Bayelsa Commissioner for Health * Dumo Lulu-Briggs, business man and politician * Patience Torlowei, artist and fashion designer * Finidi George, Nigerian footballer and coach * Taribo West, Nigerian former soccer player and pastor * Samson Siasia, Nigerian footballer and coach * Inetimi Odon Timaya, Nigerian singer * Damini Ogulu (Burna Boy), Nigerian singer and Grammy award winner * Ideye Brown, Nigerian footballer * King Alrlfred Diete-Spiff, former Military Governor of Rivers State and Amanayabo (King) of Twon-Brass * King Edward Asimini William Dappa Pepple III, Perekule XI, Amanayabo (King) of Grand Bonny Kingdom *High Chief Government Oweizide Ekpemupolo, Nigerian freedom fighter (ex-militant) commander * Jeremiah Omoto Fufeyin, clergyman. * Tammy Abraham, professional footballer. * Agbani Darego, professional model and beauty queen. * Gentle Jack, professional Nollywood actor. * Dakore Egbuson Akande, Nollywood Actress * Kingsley Otuaro Former Deputy Governor of
Delta State Delta is a States of Nigeria, state in the South South (Nigeria), South-South geopolitical zone of Nigeria. Named after the Niger Delta—a large part of which is in the state—the state was formed from the former Bendel State, on 27 August 1 ...
* Timini Egbuson, Nollywood actor *
Henry Seriake Dickson Henry Seriake Dickson CON (born 28 January 1966) is a Nigerian lawyer and politician. He has been the Senator representing Bayelsa West since 2020 in the 9th National Assembly. He was the governor of Bayelsa State from 14 February 2012 to 14 F ...
, politician and former governor * Timipre Sylva, politician and former governor of Bayelsa State, former Minister of State for Petroleum Resources. * Edwin Kiagbodo Clark, Nigerian Ijaw leader and politician * Sir.Kenneth I. Anga KSc , Public Servant , Chairman Ijaw National Congress INC Americas


Ijaw organisations

* Ijaw Youth Council (IYC) * Ijaw National Congress (INC) * Ijaw National Congress Americas (INCA)http://incamericas.us * Tuomo Youth Congress


References


Other sources

* Human Rights Watch, "Delta Crackdown", May 1999 * Ijaw Youth Movement, letter to "All Managing Directors and Chief Executives of transnational oil companies operating in Ijawland", December 18, 1998 * Project Underground, "Visit the World of Chevron: Niger Delta", 1999 * Kari, Ethelbert Emmanuel. 2004. ''A Reference Grammar of Degema''. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag. * Hlaváčová, Anna: "Three Points of View of Masquerades among the Ijo of the Niger River Delta". In: ''Playful Performers: African Children's Masquerades''. Ottenberg, S.; Binkley, D. (eds.)


External links


''Ijaw World Studies''''The Ijaw Language Dictionary Online''''Ethnologue'': "Ijaw Linguistic Tree"
University of Iowa
American Museum of Natural History: "The Art of the Kalabari Masquerade"
* ttp://www.vanityfair.com/politics/features/2007/02/junger200702 "Blood Oil"by Sebastian Junger in '' Vanity Fair'', February 2007 (accessed 28/1/2007), deals partly with the Ijaw {{DEFAULTSORT:Ijaw People Ethnic groups in Nigeria Fossil fuels in Nigeria Indigenous peoples of the Niger Delta