History of Pomerania (1945-present)

The history of Pomerania starts shortly before 1000 AD with ongoing conquests by newly arrived Polans rulers. Before that, the area was recorded nearly 2000 years ago as Germania, and in modern-day times Pomerania is split between Germany and Poland. Its name comes from the Slavic ''po more'', which means "land at the sea".

Settlement in the area started by the end of the Vistula Glacial Stage, about 13,000 years ago. Archeological traces have been found of various cultures during the Stone and Bronze Age, of Veneti and Germanic peoples during the Iron Age and, in the Middle Ages, Slavic tribes and Vikings. RGA 25 (2004), p.422From the First Humans to the Mesolithic Hunters in the Northern German Lowlands, Current Results and Trends - THOMAS TERBERGER. From: Across the western Baltic, edited by: Keld Møller Hansen & Kristoffer Buck Pedersen, 2006, , Sydsjællands Museums Publikationer Vol. 1 Piskorski (1999), pp.18ff 6Horst Wernicke, ''Greifswald, Geschichte der Stadt'', Helms, 2000, pp.16ff, A. W. R. Whittle, Europe in the Neolithic: The Creation of New Worlds, Cambridge University Press, 1996, p.198, Buchholz (1999), pp.22,23Herrmann (1985), pp.237ff,244ff Starting in the 10th century, Piast Poland on several occasions acquired parts of the region from the south-east, while the Holy Roman Empire and Denmark reached the region in augmenting their territory to the west and north.Herrmann (1985), pp.261,345ffPiskorski (1999), p.32 :pagan reaction of 1005A. P. Vlasto, ''Entry of Slavs Christendom'', CUP Archive, 1970, p.129, : abandoned 1004 - 1005 in face of violent oppositionNora Berend, ''Christianization and the Rise of Christian Monarchy: Scandinavia, Central Europe and Rus' C. 900-1200'', Cambridge University Press, 2007, p.293, , David Warner, ''Ottonian Germany: The Chronicon of Thietmar of Merseburg'', Manchester University Press, 2001, p.358, , Michael Borgolte, Benjamin Scheller, ''Polen und Deutschland vor 1000 Jahren: Die Berliner Tagung über den "Akt von Gnesen"'', Akademie Verlag, 2002, p.282, ,

In the High Middle Ages, the area became Christian and was ruled by local dukes of the House of Pomerania and the Samborides, at various times vassals of Denmark, the Holy Roman Empire and Poland.Addison (2003), pp.57ffPiskorski (1999), pp.35ffTheologische Realenzyklopädie (1997), pp.40ff From the late 12th century, the Griffin Duchy of Pomerania stayed with the Holy Roman Empire and the Principality of Rügen with Denmark, while Denmark, Brandenburg, Poland and the Teutonic Knights struggled for control in Samboride Pomerelia. The Teutonic Knights succeeded in annexing Pomerelia to their monastic state in the early 14th century. Meanwhile, the Ostsiedlung started to turn Pomerania into a German-settled area; the remaining Wends, who became known as Slovincians and Kashubians, continued to settle within the rural East.Piskorski (1999), pp.77ffBuchholz (1999), pp.45ff In 1325, the line of the princes of Rügen died out, and the principality was inherited by the House of Pomerania, themselves involved in the Brandenburg-Pomeranian conflict about superiority in their often internally divided duchy. In 1466, with the Teutonic Order's defeat, Pomerelia became subject to the Polish Crown as a part of Royal Prussia. While the Duchy of Pomerania adopted the Protestant Reformation in 1534,Richard du Moulin Eckart, ''Geschichte der deutschen Universitäten'', Georg Olms Verlag, 1976, pp.111,112, Theologische Realenzyklopädie (1997), pp.43ff as part of the Empire by then termed the ''Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation'', Kashubia remained with the Roman Catholic Church. The Thirty Years' and subsequent wars severely ravaged and depopulated most of Pomerania. With the extinction of the Griffin house during the same period, the Duchy of Pomerania was divided between the Swedish Empire and Brandenburg-Prussia in 1648.

Prussia gained the southern parts of Swedish Pomerania in 1720.Buchholz (1999), pp.341-343 It gained the remainder of Swedish Pomerania in 1815, when French occupation during the Napoleonic Wars was lifted.Buchholz (1999), pp.363,364 The former Brandenburg-Prussian Pomerania and the former Swedish parts were reorganized into the Prussian Province of Pomerania,Buchholz (1999), p.366 while Pomerelia in the partitions of Poland was made part of the Province of West Prussia. With Prussia, both provinces joined the newly constituted German Empire in 1871. Following the empire's defeat in World War I, Pomerelia became part of the Second Polish Republic ( Polish Corridor) and the Free City of Danzig was created. Germany's Province of Pomerania was expanded in 1938 to include northern parts of the former Province of Posen–West Prussia, and in 1939 the annexed Polish territories became the part of Nazi Germany known as Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia. The Nazis deported the Pomeranian Jews to a reservation near LublinLucie Adelsberger, Arthur Joseph Slavin, Susan H. Ray, Deborah E. Lipstadt, ''Auschwitz: A Doctor's Story'', Northeastern University Press, 1995, , p.138: February 12/13, 1940Isaiah Trunk, Jacob Robinson, ''Judenrat: The Jewish Councils in Eastern Europe Under Nazi Occupation'', U of Nebraska Press, 1996, , p.133: February 14, 1940; unheated wagons, elderly and sick suffered most, inhumane treatmentMartin Gilbert, Eilert Herms, Alexandra Riebe, ''Geistliche als Retter - auch eine Lehre aus dem Holocaust: Auch eine Lehre aus dem Holocaust'', Mohr Siebeck, 2003, , pp.14 (English) and 15 (German): February 15, 1940, 1000 Jews deportedYad Vashem Studies, Yad ṿa-shem, rashut ha-zikaron la-Shoʼah ṿela-gevurah, Yad Vashem Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority, 1996
Notizen: v.12, p.69: 1,200 deported, 250 died during deportationNathan Stoltzfus, ''Resistance of the Heart: Intermarriage and the Rosenstrasse Protest in Nazi Germany'', Rutgers University Press, 2001, , p.130: February 11/12 from Stettin, soon thereafter from Schneidemühl, total of 1,260 Jews deported, among the deportees were intermarried non-Jewish women who had refused to divorce, eager Nazi Gauleiter Schwede-Coburg was the first to have his Gau "judenfrei", Eichmann's "RSHA" (Reich Security Main Office) ensured this was an isolated local incident to worried Eppstein of the Central Organization of Jews in Germany (Reichsvereinigung der Juden in Deutschland)John Mendelsohn, ''Legalizing the Holocaust, the Later Phase, 1939-1943'', Garland Pub., 1982, , p.131: Stettin Jews' houses were sealed, belongings liquidated, funds to be held in blocked accountsBuchholz (1999), p.506: Only very few f the Pomeranian Jewssurvived the Nazi era. p.510: Nearly all Jews from Stettin and all the province, about a thousandAlicia Nitecki, Jack Terry, ''Jakub's World: A Boy's Story of Loss and Survival in the Holocaust'', SUNY Press, 2005, , pp.13ff: Stettin Jews to Belzyce in Lublin area, reservation purpose decline of Jews, terror command of Kurt Engels, shocking insights in life circumstances and mass-murdered Jews, Poles and Kashubians in Pomerania, planning to eventually exterminate Jews and Poles and Germanise the Kashubians.

After Nazi Germany's defeat in World War II, the German–Polish border was shifted west to the Oder–Neisse line and all of Pomerania was placed under Soviet military control.Piskorski (1999), pp.373ff The area west of the line became part of East Germany, the other areas part of the People's Republic of Poland even though it did not have a sizeable Polish population. The German population of the areas east of the line was expelled, and the area was resettled primarily with Poles, some of whom were themselves expellees from former eastern Poland) and some Ukrainians who were resettled under Operation Vistula) and Jews.Piskorski (1999), pp.381ffTomasz Kamusella in Prauser and Reeds (eds), ''The Expulsion of the German communities from Eastern Europe'', p.28, EUI HEC 2004/

Philipp Ther, Ana Siljak, ''Redrawing Nations: Ethnic Cleansing in East-Central Europe, 1944-1948'', 2001, p.114, , Gregor Thum, ''Die fremde Stadt. Breslau nach 1945", 2006, pp.363, , Buchholz (1999), p.515Dierk Hoffmann, Michael Schwartz, ''Geglückte Integration?'', p142
/ref>Karl Cordell, Andrzej Antoszewski, ''Poland and the European Union'', 2000, p.168, Piskorski (1999), p.406Selwyn Ilan Troen, Benjamin Pinkus, Merkaz le-moreshet Ben-Guryon, ''Organizing Rescue: National Jewish Solidarity in the Modern Period'', pp.283-284, 1992, , Most of Western Pomerania (''Vorpommern'') today forms the eastern part of the state of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania in Federal Republic of Germany, while the Polish part of the region is divided between West Pomeranian Voivodeship and Pomeranian Voivodeship, with their capitals in Szczecin and Gdańsk, respectively. During the late 1980s, the Solidarność and Die Wende movements overthrew the Communist regimes implemented during the post-war era . Since then, Pomerania has been democratically governed.

Prehistory and antiquity

After the glaciers of the Vistula Glacial Stage retreated from Pomerania during the Allerød oscillation, a warming period that falls within the Early Stone Age, they left a tundra. First humans appeared, hunting reindeer in the summer.Piskorski (1999), pp.16,17 A climate change in 8000 BCPiskorski (1999), p.17 allowed hunters and foragers of the Maglemosian culture, and from 6000 BC of the Ertebølle-Ellerbek culture, to continuously inhabit the area. These people became influenced by farmers of the Linear Pottery culture who settled in southern Pomerania. The hunters of the Ertebølle-Ellerbek culture became farmers of the Funnelbeaker culture in 3000 BC. The Havelland culture dominated in the Uckermark from 2500 to 2000 BC. In 2400 BC, the Corded Ware culture reached Pomerania and introduced the domestic horse. Both Linear Pottery and Corded Ware culture have been associated with Indo-Europeans. Except for Western Pomerania, the Funnelbeaker culture was replaced by the Globular Amphora culture a thousand years later.Piskorski (1999), p.19

During the Bronze Age, Western Pomerania was part of the Nordic Bronze Age cultures, while east of the Oder the Lusatian culture dominated. Throughout the Iron Age, the people of the western Pomeranian areas belonged to the Jastorf culture, while the Lusatian culture of the East was succeeded by the Pomeranian culture, then in 150 BC by the Oxhöft (Oksywie) culture, and at the beginning of the first millennium by the Willenberg (Wielbark) Culture.

While the Jastorf culture is usually associated with Germanic peoples, the ethnic category of the Lusatian culture and its successors is debated. Veneti, Germanic peoples ( Goths, Rugians, and Gepids) and possibly Slavs are assumed to have been the bearers of these cultures or parts thereof.Piskorski (1999), pp.21ff 6

Beginning in the 3rd century, many settlements were abandoned, marking the beginning of the Migration Period in Pomerania. It is assumed that Burgundians, Goths and Gepids with parts of the Rugians left Pomerania during that stage, while some Veneti, Vidivarii and other, Germanic groups remained, RGA 23 (2003), p.282 and formed the Gustow, Debczyn and late Willenberg cultures, which existed in Pomerania until the 6th century. RGA 23 (2003), p.281

Timeline 10,000 BC–600 AD

*~10,000 BC ( Early Stone Age): first humans hunt in Pomerania after the Ice Age glaciers left ( Hamburg culture, a subgroup of the Ahrensburg culture)
*8000–3000 BC (Middle Stone Age): Maglemosian culture, Ertebølle-Ellerbek culture (Lietzow subgroup)Horst Wernicke, ''Greifswald, Geschichte der Stadt'', Helms, 2000, p.16,
*3000–1900 BC (Late Stone Age): Linear Pottery culture,Piskorski (1999), pp.18,19 6 Funnelbeaker culture,Piskorski (1999), p.19 6 Havelland culture,Horst Wernicke, ''Greifswald, Geschichte der Stadt'', Helms, 2000, pp.16,17, Corded Ware culture,Piskorski (1999), pp.19,20 6 Globular Amphora culture
*1900–~550 BC ( Bronze Age): Nordic Bronze Age ( Western Pomerania), Lusatian Culture (Eastern Pomerania)Piskorski (1999), pp.20,21 6
*~550 BC–~250 AD ( Iron Age): Jastorf culture ( Western Pomerania, 550–50 BC),Piskorski (1999), p.23 6Horst Wernicke, ''Greifswald, Geschichte der Stadt'', Helms, 2000, pp.18,19, Pomeranian culture (Pomerelia, 650–150 BC), Oxhöft (Oksywie) culture (Pomerelia, 150 BC–1 AD), Willenberg (Wielbark) culture (Pomerelia, 1–250 AD). In part associated with Veneti and Germanic peoplesHorst Wernicke, ''Greifswald, Geschichte der Stadt'', Helms, 2000, p.19, like Suebi, Goths, and Rugians.
*since 200: Migration Period: great parts of the population move south, associated with Burgundians, Goths, Gepids, and parts of the Rugians
*3rd–6th centuries: Gustow group in Western Pomerania, Dębczyn (Denzin) culture in most of Farther Pomerania, late stage of the Willenberg (Wielbark) culture in Pomerelia and some areas west of it. Associated with Rugian remains and other Germanic tribes, Vistula Veneti, and Vidivarii.

Early Middle Ages

The southward movement of Germanic tribes and Veneti during the Migration Period had left Pomerania largely depopulated by the 7th century.Piskorski (1999), p.26 Between 650 and 850 AD, West Slavic tribes settled in Pomerania.Piskorski (1999), pp.29ff These tribes were collectively known as " Pomeranians" between the Oder and Vistula rivers, or as " Veleti" (later "Liuticians") west of the Oder. A distinct tribe, the Rani, was based on the island of Rügen and the adjacent mainland.Piskorski (1999), p.30 In the 8th and 9th centuries, Slavic- Scandinavian emporia were set up along the coastline as powerful centres of craft and trade.Harck&Lübke (2001), pp.15ff

In 936, the Holy Roman Empire set up the Billung and Northern marches in Western Pomerania, divided by the Peene. The Liutician federation, in an uprising of 983, managed to regain independence, but broke apart in the course of the 11th century because of internal conflicts.Harck&Lübke (2001), p.27 Meanwhile, Polish Piasts managed to acquire parts of eastern Pomerania during the late 960s, where the Diocese of Kołobrzeg was installed in 1000 AD. The Pomeranians regained independence during the Pomeranian uprising of 1005.Buchholz (1999), p.25 : pagan uprising that also ended the Polish suzerainty in 1005Michael Müller-Wille, ''Rom und Byzanz im Norden: Mission und Glaubenswechsel im Ostseeraum während des 8.-14. Jahrhunderts: internationale Fachkonferenz der deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft in Verbindung mit der Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur, Mainz: Kiel, 18.-25. 9. 1994'', 1997, p.105, ,

During the first half of the 11th century, the Liuticians participated in the Holy Roman Empire's wars against Piast Poland.Herrmann (1985), pp.356ff The alliance broke off when Poland was defeated,Herrmann (1985), p.359 and the Liutician federation broke apart in 1057 during a civil war.Herrmann (1985), p.365 The Liutician capital was destroyed by the Germans in 1068/69,Herrmann (1985), p.366 making way for the subsequent eastward expansion of their western neighbour, the Obodrite state. In 1093, the Luticians,Herrmann (1985), p.379 Pomeranians and Rani had to pay tribute to Obodrite prince Henry.Herrmann (1985), p.367

Timeline 600–1100

*~650–~850: Slavic peoples appear and differentiate into several tribes grouped as Polabian Veleti (later ''Liuticians'', ''Lutizians'') in the West and Pomeranians in the East,Harck&Lübke (2001), p.15 resettling the regions left by the Germanic tribes
*since 800: various Scandinavian settlements and tradeposts, including Ralswiek, Altes Lager Menzlin, and Wollin (then " Vineta" or " Jomsborg" of the Jomsvikings).
*918: western parts incorporated into Northern March and March of the Billungs ( Duchy of Saxony, Holy Roman Empire)
*955: Battle of Recknitz ("Raxa"): Germans and Rani suppress an Obodrite revolt in the Billung march
*In the 980s, a stronghold in Gdańsk was built, probably by the Polish ruler Mieszko I, who thereby connected the future Polish state ruled by the Piast dynasty with the trade routes of the Baltic Sea.
*983: uprising in the marches, Lutici regain independence after forming the Lutici federation
* Mieszko I of Poland launches several campaigns since the 960s, acquiring KołobrzegPiskorski (1999), p.32
*1000: Congress of Gniezno constitutes Reinbern's Bishopric of Kołobrzeg
*1005: Pomerania regains independence, bishopric dissolved
*1046: A Siemomysł, called to Merseburg by king Henry III to conclude a peace settlement, is the first documented duke of Pomerania, though the extent and location of his realm is unknown.Piskorski (1999), p.33
*1056/57: The Lutici alliance breaks apart in a civil war, subsequent Obodrite eastward expansion.Herrmann (1985), p.365
*1067/68 and 1069: Saxon expeditions raid and destroy Rethra, the main Liutician stronghold and temple.Herrmann (1985), p.366
*1093: Lutici,Herrmann (1985), p.379 Pomeranians and Rani had to pay tribute to Obodrite prince Henry.Herrmann (1985), p.367

High Middle Ages

In the early 12th century, Obodrite, Polish, Saxon, and Danish conquests resulted in vassalage and Christianization of the formerly pagan and independent Pomeranian tribes.Theologische Realenzyklopädie (1997), p.40Herrmann (1985), pp.384ff Local dynasties ruled the Principality of Rügen (House of Wizlaw), the Duchy of Pomerania ( House of Pomerania), the Lands of Schlawe and Stolp (Ratiboride branch of the House of Pomerania), and the duchies in Pomerelia ( Samborides). Monasteries were founded at Grobe, Kolbatz, Gramzow, and Belbuck which supported Pomerania's Christianization and advanced German settlements.

The dukes of Pomerania expanded their realm into Circipania and Uckermark to the Southwest, and competed with the Margraviate of Brandenburg for territory and formal overlordship over their duchies. Pomerania-Demmin lost most of her territory and was integrated into Pomerania-Stettin in the mid-13th century. When the Ratiborides died out in 1223, competition arose for the Lands of Schlawe and Stolp,Buchholz (1999), p.87 which changed hands numerous times.

Throughout the High Middle Ages, a large influx of German settlers and the introduction of German law, custom, and Low German language turned the area west of the Oder into a German one (Ostsiedlung). The Wends, who during the Early Middle Ages had belonged to the Slavic Rani, Lutician and Pomeranian tribes, were assimilated by the German Pomeranians. To the east of the Oder this development occurred later; in the area from Stettin eastward, the number of German settlers in the 12th century was still insignificant. The Kashubians descendants of Slavic Pomeranians, dominated many rural areas in Pomerelia.

The conversion of Pomerania to Christianity was achieved primarily by the missionary efforts of Absalon and Otto von Bamberg, by the foundation of numerous monasteries, and by the assimilatory power of the Christian settlers. A Pomeranian diocese was set up in Wolin, the see was later moved to Cammin.

Timeline 1100–1300

*1100: Unsuccessful siege of the Obodrite capital Liubice by the RaniHerrmann (1985), p.268
*1102–1121/2: Bolesław III Wrymouth conquers Pomerania east of the Oder and the burghs of Szczecin (Stettin) and Wolin (Wollin, Jumne);Piskorski (1999), p.35 first known dukes of the House of Pomerania (West) and Samborides (East)
*1120s: Wartislaw I of the House of Pomerania expands his duchy westward and incorporates Liutician territory including the County of Gützkow, Wolgast, Circipania and UckermarkPiskorski (1999), pp.40,41
*1123–1125: Obodrite prince Henry subdues the RaniHerrmann (1985), p.379 Wartislaw accepted the superiority of the Holy Roman Emperor and, with the exception of the newly won territories, also the superiority of the Polish duke.Inachin (2008), p.17
*1124/28: Otto of Bamberg's mission results in the Conversion of Pomerania to ChristianityBuchholz (1999), p.25William Palmer, ''A Compendioius Ecclesiastical History from the Earliest Period to the Present Time'', Kessinger Publishing, 2005, pp.107ff, Herrmann (1985), pp.402ff
*1128: Rani forces assault and destroy Obodrite LiubiceHerrmann (1985), p.381
*1135: Boleslaw accepts the superiority of Holy Roman Emperor Lothair, who in turn grants him Pomerania as a fief, including the Oder area and the principality of Rügen which had not been subjugated yet.Piskorski (1999), p.43
*since 1138: Boleslaw dies, the Griffin duchy regains independence from the PiastsHerrmann (1985), pp.386
*1140: Diocese of Cammin set up, centred at Wolin and subordinate directly to the Holy See
*1147: Wendish Crusade mounted by dukes and bishops of the Holy Roman Empire, Danish and Polish participation
*1155: Partition of the Duchy of Pomerania into Pomerania-Demmin and Pomerania-Stettin
*1164: Battle of Verchen, House of Pomerania becomes vassals of Henry the Lion's Duchy of SaxonyBuchholz (1999), pp.30,34
*1168: Danish expedition led by Roskilde archbishop Absalon takes the Principality of Rügen, resulting in conversion of the Rani who became Danish vassals
*~1170: first German settlementsPiskorski (1999), p.77
*1170s and early 1180s: various encounters between Pomeranians and Danes. Danes raid Circipania and Wolin.
*1181 House of Pomerania becomes vassal of Barbarossa's Holy Roman EmpireBuchholz (1999), p.34Piskorski (1999), p.44
*1184: Pomeranian navy repelled and destroyed by the Danes in the Bay of Greifswald

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