Guo Zixing
   HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

The Red Turban Rebellions () were uprisings against the Yuan dynasty between 1351 and 1368, eventually leading to its collapse. Remnants of the Yuan imperial court retreated northwards and is thereafter known as the Northern Yuan in historiography.


Background


Factional strife

In the early 1300s, the imperial court of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty was split between two factions on how best to govern the empire. One faction favored a Mongol-centric policy that favored Mongol and Inner Asian interests while the opposing faction leaned towards a more
Han Han may refer to: Ethnic groups * Han Chinese, or Han People (): the name for the largest ethnic group in China, which also constitutes the world's largest ethnic group. ** Han Taiwanese (): the name for the ethnic group of the Taiwanese p ...
-based "Confucian" governing style. The latter group conducted a coup in 1328 to enthrone
Kusala Kusala may refer to: * Khutughtu Khan Kusala Khutughtu Khan ( mn, Хутагт хаан; Mongolian script: ; ), born Kuśala (Mongolian: Хүслэн ; , sa, कुशल means virtuous/wholesome), also known by the temple name Mingzong (Emper ...
(Emperor Mingzong). Kusala was literate in the Chinese language and made efforts to write Chinese poetry and to produce Chinese calligraphy. He patronized Chinese learning and art with a new academy and office in the inner court. Others at court such as the Merkit Majarday and his son, Toqto'a, also led the way in cultivating Chinese learning by establishing contacts with ethnic Han scholars and hiring them as tutors. Kusala was assassinated by supporters of his half-brother,
Tugh Temür A ''tug'' ( , tr, tuğ, ota, طوغ or , otk, 𐱃𐰆𐰍, tuğ) or sulde ( mn, сүлд, script=Cyrl), () is a pole with circularly arranged horse or yak tail hairs of varying colors arranged at the top. It was historically flown by T ...
(Emperor Wenzong). Tugh Temür died in 1332 and was succeeded by his six-year-old child,
Rinchinbal Rinchinbal Khan ( Mongolian: Ринчинбал , bo, རིན་ཆེན་དཔལ།; Emperor Ningzong of Yuan, ; May 1, 1326 – December 14, 1332), was a son of Kuśala who was briefly installed to the throne of the Yuan dynasty of Chin ...
(Emperor Ningzong), who died six months later. His older brother, Toghon Temür (Emperor Huizong), became emperor at the age of 13. He was the last emperor of the Yuan dynasty.


Military decline

By the time Kublai (Emperor Shizu) conquered the
Central Plain Central Plain or Central Plains may refer to: Regions * Zhongyuan, a plain in Northern China in the lower reaches of the Yellow River which was the cradle of Chinese civilisation ** Central Plains Economic Zone * Central Plain (Wisconsin), one ...
, the Yuan army was composed mostly of professional Han soldiers who had once been subject to the Jin dynasty prior to its conquest by the Mongols. These soldiers, sometimes under Mongol or Inner Asian command, were garrisoned across the empire and served as the primary body of the Yuan army. Some special Mongol units were dispatched to strategic locations as needed, but not to police the empire and not on a regular basis. Most of the Mongol garrisons were located to the north around the capital of
Khanbaliq Khanbaliq or Dadu of Yuan () was the winter capital of the Yuan dynasty of China in what is now Beijing, also the capital of the People's Republic of China today. It was located at the center of modern Beijing. The Secretariat directly administ ...
. Yuan garrisons had already entered a steep decline by the end of the 13th century and by 1340, repeatedly failed to put down local rebellions. In the 1340s a bandit gang of merely 36 persons in
Huashan Mount Hua () is a mountain located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi, Shaanxi Province, about east of Xi'an. It is the "Western Mountain" of the Sacred Mountains of China, Five Great Mountains of China and has a long history of religious sign ...
took over a
Daoist temple A Taoist temple (, also called ''dàoguàn'' and , is a place where the Tao is observed and cultivated it is a place of worship in Taoism. Structure and function can vary according to the Taoist school the temple belongs to. For example, ''guàn ...
. For more than three months, government forces from three provinces failed to defeat them. It was only when salt-field workers, noted for their fierceness and independence in Hangzhou, were brought in to handle the situation that the bandits were defeated. From that time on the people of the realm regarded the government forces as useless and depended on local leadership for defense, contributing to the process of decentralization. At the same time the Yuan also had to contend with rebellious Jurchens, who revolted in 1343. The Jurchens resented the Mongols for having to supply them with gyrfalcons. Efforts to suppress the Jurchen rebellion failed and by 1348, at least two Jurchen groups no longer obeyed Yuan authority. Their leaders claimed to be descendants of the Jin dynasty.


Natural disasters

Since the 1340s, the Yuan dynasty experienced problems. The Yellow River flooded constantly and other natural disasters also occurred. At the same time the Yuan dynasty required considerable military expenditure to maintain its vast empire.Yuan dynasty: Ancient China Dynasties, paragraph 3.
/ref> Groups or religious sects made an effort to undermine the power of the last Yuan rulers; these religious movements often warned of impending doom. Decline of agriculture, epidemics and cold weather hit China, spurring the armed rebellion. The earliest record of an unusual epidemic during the 14th century says that in the year 1331, an epidemic occurred in Hebei and then spread elsewhere, killing 13 million people by 1333. Another epidemic ravaged Fujian and
Shandong Shandong ( , ; ; alternately romanized as Shantung) is a coastal province of the People's Republic of China and is part of the East China region. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history since the beginning of Chinese civilizati ...
from 1344 to 1346. The epidemic returned in
Shanxi Shanxi (; ; formerly romanised as Shansi) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China and is part of the North China region. The capital and largest city of the province is Taiyuan, while its next most populated prefecture-lev ...
, Hebei, and Jiangsu in 1351–52. Additional epidemics were recorded in various provinces from 1356 to 1360 and "great pestilences" every year from 1356 to 1362. In Shanxi and Hebei, 200,000 people died in 1358.


Red Turbans

The Red Turbans first appeared in Jiangxi and Hunan in the 1330s. From there they spread throughout half of China within a dozen years, moving clandestinely into provinces affected by natural disasters. Their religious teachings created sects with broad local followings that practiced night gatherings of men and women to burn incense and worship Mile Pusa. Eventually these sects coalesced into two broad movements: the southern (or western) Red Turbans in southern Hubei and the northern (or eastern) Red Turbans based in the Huai River region in Anhui. The Red Turban movement traces its origins to Peng Yingyu, a Buddhist monk, who led an uprising in Yuanzhou (in modern Jiangxi) in 1338. A rebel leader, Zhou Ziwang, was proclaimed emperor, but he was quickly apprehended by regional authorities and executed. Peng fled northward spread the teaching of the coming of Mile Pusa, the Buddha of wealth and radiance, who would bring an end to suffering. Red Turban influence appeared in many places along the Huai River from 1340 onward.


Rebellions


Northern Red Turbans

In 1351, a mass mobilization of workers from the farming population, numbering 150,000 in total, for a project to rechannel the Yellow River and to open the Grand Canal in western
Shandong Shandong ( , ; ; alternately romanized as Shantung) is a coastal province of the People's Republic of China and is part of the East China region. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history since the beginning of Chinese civilizati ...
saw ripe conditions for recruitment by the Red Turbans. A Red Turban leader,
Han Shantong Han Shantong ({{zh, t=韓山童, p=Hán Shāntóng; died 1351), born in Luancheng, Hebei, was one of the early leaders of the Red Turban Rebellions. He claimed to be the descendant of Emperor Huizong of Song (1082–1135), the penultimate empero ...
, and his advisor, Liu Futong, successfully recruited from the disgruntled workers, resulting in explosive rebellious activity. Han Shantong was captured and executed, but his wife and son, Han Lin'er, escaped with Liu. Liu established a capital at Yingzhou in modern western Anhui at the Hunan border and proclaimed the establishment of a Red Turban government. Han Lin'er was proclaimed the "Young Prince of Radiance" hailing from Song dynasty royalty. Han Lin'er was proclaimed emperor of a restored Song dynasty in Bozhou (in western Anhui) on 16 March 1355. On 11 June 1358, Liu Futong set out to capture Kaifeng, which had been the capital of the Song dynasty. The city was only held briefly by the new Song dynasty before a counteroffensive by
Chaghan Temur Chaghan Temur (, Mongolian:{{MongolUnicode, ᠼᠠᠭᠠᠨᠲᠡᠮᠦᠷ), Courtesy name Tingrui (廷瑞), was a Yuan dynasty officer and military leader of Naiman Kazakh ethnicity. Life Chaghan Temur's family originated from Beshbaliq, toda ...
forced them to retreat on 10 September 1359. Han Lin'er's court fled to Anfeng where they remained until Zhang Shicheng sent an army against them in 1363. In the northeast, the Red Turbans invaded Goryeo in 1359 and 1360. It's uncertain what exactly caused the Red Turbans to attack Goryeo but it was most likely due to material considerations. The Red Turbans in Liaodong had proven inferior to the soldiers of Chaghan Temur, who had defeated them in battle, and possibly saw Goryeo as an easier target unprotected by Mongol forces. The Red Turbans were also facing starvation and needed grain and supplies. There may have also been ethnic and political reasons. The Korean communities in Liaodong had refused to join the Red Turbans against the Yuan and in 1354, Gongmin of Goryeo contributed troops to Yuan efforts to suppress the Red Turbans. The invasions caught the unprepared Goryeo forces off guard, causing much destruction, sacking several cities, and briefly occupying Pyongyang (1359) and
Kaesong Kaesong (, ) is a special city in the southern part of North Korea (formerly in North Hwanghae Province), and the capital of Korea during the Taebong kingdom and subsequent Goryeo dynasty. The city is near the Kaesong Industrial Region close t ...
(1360). Although ultimately repelled, the havoc caused by the Red Turbans on Goryeo was substantial.


Southern Red Turbans

In the summer of 1351, Peng Yingyu and his principal military follower, Zou Pusheng, found in
Xu Shouhui Xu Shouhui () (1320–1360) was a 14th-century Chinese rebel leader who proclaimed himself emperor of the Tianwan dynasty (天完) during the late Yuan dynasty period of China. He was also known as Xu Zhenyi (徐真一 or 徐真逸, romanized i ...
, a cloth peddler, the makings of a Red Turban figurehead. In September, Zou captured the city of Qishui in southern Hubei and enthroned Xu Shouhui as emperor over the Red Turban dynasty of "Tianwan" (Heaven Consummated). The new dynasty expanded southward and briefly held Hanyang, Hankou, and Wuchang before being driven off in 1352. In 1355, Zou was succeeded by
Ni Wenjun Ni Wenjun (; died 1357) was a Chinese general of the Red Turban Rebellions who fought against the Yuan dynasty in the 1360s. He served under General Xu Shouhui. One of Ni's famous subordinates was Chen Youliang Chen Youliang (陳友諒; 132 ...
as military leader. Ni took Hanyang again in 1356 and moved the dynasty's capital there. The next year, Ni attempted to murder Xu and replace him but failed. He was executed and replaced by Chen Youliang. Under Chen, the dynasty's territories rapidly expanded and in less than two years, had taken
Chongqing Chongqing ( or ; ; Sichuanese dialects, Sichuanese pronunciation: , Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ), Postal Romanization, alternately romanized as Chungking (), is a Direct-administered municipalities of China, municipality in Southwes ...
and held all of Sichuan. In 1360, Chen murdered Xu and seized the throne, renaming the dynasty to
Han Han may refer to: Ethnic groups * Han Chinese, or Han People (): the name for the largest ethnic group in China, which also constitutes the world's largest ethnic group. ** Han Taiwanese (): the name for the ethnic group of the Taiwanese p ...
. He immediately launched an attack on Nanjing but failed to take it and was forced to return to Wuchang, which he made his capital. Chen attacked Zhu Yuanzhang and was defeated, being ejected from Jiangxi in 1361. Chen made a final attempt at defeating Zhu in 1363, sending a large armada down the Changjiang into Lake Poyang. Cheng and Zhu's forces engaged in a long running battle lasting over the summer before Chen was defeated and killed after suffering an arrow wound to the head. Zhu then took Han Lin'er, who had been Chen's ward since the death of Liu Futong. In Sichuan, the Red Turban commander,
Ming Yuzhen Ming Yuzhen (; 2 October 1328 – 17 March 1366) was a peasant rebel leader who established the dynasty of Ming Xia during the late Yuan dynasty in China. Ming was born in Suizhou (today Sui County, Hubei) in a farmer family. He changed the ch ...
, refused to acknowledge Chen Youliang when he usurped Xu Shouhui. Ming declared his own Red Turban kingdom of Ming Xia. He seemed to have governed competently, having recruited scholars and heeding the advice of a Confucian official named Liu Zhen, but failed in an attempt to take Yunnan from the Mongols. Ming reigned until he died of illness at the age of 35 in 1366. He was succeeded by his son, Ming Sheng, who surrendered to the Ming dynasty in 1371. Historical records commonly portray the Red Turban Army as dealing with captive Yuan officials and soldiers with considerable violence. In his work on violence in rural China, William T. Rowe writes:


Zhang Shicheng

Zhang Shicheng was a boatman from the market settlement of Bojuchang (modern Dafeng District) in northern Jiangsu. He engaged in transportation of illegal salt trade. In 1353, at the age of 32, Zhang killed one of the rich merchants who had cheated him and set fire to the local community. Then with his brothers and a group of 18 followers, Zhang fled and turned to banditry. Within a few weeks Zhang had recruited more than ten thousand followers, whom he led to plunder Taizhou and other nearby cities. By the end of 1353, Zhang had taken the city of Gaoyou. In the summer of 1357, Zhu Yuanzhang captured Zhang Shicheng's brother, Shide, and tried to use him to bargain for Zhang's surrender. Shide secretly sent a letter to his brother telling him to surrender to the Yuan instead, then starved himself to death in prison. Zhang accepted titles from the Yuan court later that year but was de facto still independent. Under the conditions laid out, Zhang was supposed to send a million piculs of rice to
Khanbaliq Khanbaliq or Dadu of Yuan () was the winter capital of the Yuan dynasty of China in what is now Beijing, also the capital of the People's Republic of China today. It was located at the center of modern Beijing. The Secretariat directly administ ...
every year by sea, but the Yuan capital never received more than 15% of the agreed amount. In 1363, Zhang took control of Hangzhou and declared himself Prince of Wu. Zhang attacked Zhu Yuanzhang but failed to defeat him and in 1364, Zhu also declared himself Prince of Wu. By late autumn of 1365, Zhu had taken the offensive position against Zhang. Zhang was besieged at
Suzhou Suzhou (; ; Suzhounese: ''sou¹ tseu¹'' , Mandarin: ), alternately romanized as Soochow, is a major city in southern Jiangsu province, East China. Suzhou is the largest city in Jiangsu, and a major economic center and focal point of trade ...
from 27 December 1366 until 1 October 1367, when its defenses fell. Zhang was captured and sent to Nanjing, where he hanged himself in his cell.


Fang Guozhen

Fang Guozhen was from Huangyan district on the coast of central Zhejiang. He was illiterate and his family were shipowners who dealt in coastal trade. In 1348, Fang was accused of dealing with pirates, so he killed his accuser and fled to offshore islands with three brothers and local cohorts. He gained a large following with over a thousand vessels under his command. He controlled the prefectures of Jingyuan, Taizhou, and Wenzhou, and practically the entire Zhejiang coast from Ningbo to northern Fujian. He also held de facto control over Ningbo and Shaoxing. He made a living as a pirate until 1356, when he surrendered to the Yuan court and was awarded titles. He helped transport grain for Zhang Shicheng to the Yuan capital,
Khanbaliq Khanbaliq or Dadu of Yuan () was the winter capital of the Yuan dynasty of China in what is now Beijing, also the capital of the People's Republic of China today. It was located at the center of modern Beijing. The Secretariat directly administ ...
. In 1359, Zhang sent a son to Zhu Yuanzhang as hostage. In 1367, Fang surrendered to Zhu Yuanzhang on favorable terms. Fang stayed in Nanjing until 1374, when he died of natural causes.


Ming dynasty (Zhu Yuanzhang)

Zhu Yuanzhang, who would later become the
Hongwu Emperor The Hongwu Emperor (21 October 1328 – 24 June 1398), personal name Zhu Yuanzhang (), courtesy name Guorui (), was the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty of China, reigning from 1368 to 1398. As famine, plagues and peasant revolts in ...
, was born on 21 October 1328 at Zhongli village in Haozhou (modern Fengyang County, Anhui). He was the youngest surviving child among four sons and two daughters. His parents were tax defaulters who fled from place to place working as tenant farmers. At the age of 16, in 1344, Zhu's father, mother, and oldest brother died in an epidemic accompanied by summer locusts and drought. The surviving family was too poor to care for Zhu and offered him to a local Buddhist monastery as menial labour. Zhu was sent out by the monastery to beg for food. For the next three years Zhu wandered around as mendicant monk, during which time he came to understand the circumstances of the rebellion. At the age of 24, Zhu returned to the monastery where he learned to read and studied Buddhist texts. On 16 February 1352, Haozhou was captured by the Red Turbans. The Yuan army retaliated by sending raiders to sack Buddhist monasteries, turning Zhu's home into a battlefield. His temple was burned down in the same month. On 15 April, Zhu joined the Red Turban rebellion under Guo Zixing's command. Zhu married an adopted daughter of Guo who would later become
empress An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereignty, sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), ...
. In 1353, two other rebels on the run from Yuan forces took refuge with Guo, but asserted seniority over him and causing factional conflict within the rebel movement. Guo was captured by one of the rebel leaders and was saved by Zhu upon his return from an expedition. A Yuan siege on Haozhou was also ended when their general, Jia Lu, died. Afterwards, Zhu returned to his village and recruited over 700 men led by 24 of his friends, which included figures such as Xu Da, Chang Yuchun,
Tang He Tang He (; 1326–1395), courtesy name Dingchen, was a significant character in the rebellion that ended the Yuan dynasty and was one of the founding generals of Ming dynasty. He came from the same village as Zhu Yuanzhang and joined Guo Zixing ...
, Lan Yu,
Mu Ying Mu Ying (1345–1392) was a Chinese military general and politician during the Ming dynasty, and an adopted son of its founder, the Hongwu Emperor. When the Ming dynasty emerged, the Hongwu Emperor's military officers who served under him were gi ...
and
Geng Bingwen Geng Bingwen () (1334–1403) was a Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-le ...
. They were known as the "Fengyang mafia." In the fall of 1353, Guo gave Zhu an independent commission under the title of guard commander. He expanded south, gaining large numbers of followers and defected soldiers along the way. By the end of the year, Zu had gained Chuzhou (near the Anhui- Jiangxi border) and remained there until 1355, when he had amassed an army of 30,000. After successfully repelling a Yuan army in the first months of 1355, at which point Guo Zixing had died, Zhu started preparations to attack Nanjing. The siege in mid-August was a failure but Zhu's forces remained stable and took the surrounding countryside. In October, the Red Turbans tried to take Nanjing again, and in the process both of Guo's successors were killed, leaving Zhu Yuanzhang in sole command of his forces. On 10 April 1356, Zhu took Nanjing, made it his new capital, and renamed it Yingtian (Response to Heaven). The court of Han Lin'er of the new Song dynasty awarded Zhu with titles and named him the head of Jiangxi. Zhu accepted the titles and Han Line'er as emperor, legitimizing himself as a representative of a 'revived' Song dynasty and the 'Luminous King' described in White Lotus teachings. A few things set Zhu apart from his rebel counterparts. He did not challenge the past legitimacy of the Mongol Yuan dynasty and only noted that by his time, the Mongols no longer possessed it. When enemy military leaders and civilians succumbed to Zhu's forces, he gave them honorable burials and established shrines in their memory. Zhu insisted that he was not a rebel, and he attempted to justify his conquest of the other rebel warlords by claiming that he was a Yuan subject divinely-appointed to restore order by crushing rebels. Most Chinese elites did not view the Yuan's Mongol ethnicity as grounds to resist or reject it. Zhu emphasised that he was not conquering territory from the Yuan dynasty but rather from the rebel warlords. He used this line of argument to attempt to persuade Yuan loyalists to join his cause. Zhu progressively developed his following into a working state. Zhu personally traveled to regions that had been conquered to survey problems and actively recruited scholars and officials, whom he invited to dine with him in his headquarters. In March 1358, he assigned Kang Maocai, a former Yuan official who had surrendered, to the Superintendency of the Office for Hydraulic Works to repair dikes and embankments. In 1360, he established bureaus to tax wine, vinegar, and salt, even though he did not control the primary salt-producing regions to the east. In 1361, he began minting copper coins, and by 1363, 38 million coins were being produced in one year. In 1362, custom offices were set up to collect taxes on traditional and commercial goods. In 1363, Zhang Shicheng attacked the Song court in Anfeng. Zhu personally led his army to defend them against Zhang and while Liu Futong was killed, Zhu managed to save Han Lin'er, who he moved to Chuzhou where the Song court continued to exist in safety. In the same year, Zhu won the
Battle of Lake Poyang The Battle of Lake Poyang () was a naval conflict which took place (30 August – 4 October 1363) between the rebel forces of Zhu Yuanzhang and Chen Youliang during the Red Turban Rebellion which led to the fall of the Yuan dynasty. Chen Youlian ...
against his rival Chen Youliang, and proceeded to eliminate Zhang Shicheng and Fang Guozhen. He spent most of 1364 and 1365 consolidating the territory he absorbed from his victory over Zhang. Zhu continued to use the Song's reign period as his official calendar until Han Lin'er drowned while crossing the Changjiang in January 1367, possibly by design. Calling to overthrow the " barbarians" and restore the "Chinese", Zhu gained popular support. A calendar called that of the Great Ming dynasty, beginning on 20 January 1368, was promulgated. On 12 January 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang proclaimed himself emperor (
Hongwu Emperor The Hongwu Emperor (21 October 1328 – 24 June 1398), personal name Zhu Yuanzhang (), courtesy name Guorui (), was the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty of China, reigning from 1368 to 1398. As famine, plagues and peasant revolts in ...
) of the Ming dynasty (Radiant dynasty) in Yingtian. On 15 August 1368, the Ming general Xu Da led an army north from Kaifeng. A defending army was defeated and Tongzhou, an intermediate city on the way to
Khanbaliq Khanbaliq or Dadu of Yuan () was the winter capital of the Yuan dynasty of China in what is now Beijing, also the capital of the People's Republic of China today. It was located at the center of modern Beijing. The Secretariat directly administ ...
, was captured on 10 September. The Yuan emperor Toghon Temür fled to Shangdu. Khanbaliq fell to the Ming on 14 September, ending the rule of the Yuan dynasty. The city was renamed Beiping (Pacified North). Shangdu was taken by the Ming general Chang Yuchun on 20 July 1369, forcing Toghon Temür to flee further north to Karakorum. China proper was once again under ethnic Han rule.


Yuan forces


Toqto'a

Toqto'a was the primary decision maker behind the Yuan throne starting in 1340 after taking power in a coup supported by the emperor Toghon Temür. As chancellor, he supported Confucian forms of government and sought to stabilize the realm through vigorous government action. One of his efforts in this endeavor was to repair and extend the Grand Canal so that the capital,
Khanbaliq Khanbaliq or Dadu of Yuan () was the winter capital of the Yuan dynasty of China in what is now Beijing, also the capital of the People's Republic of China today. It was located at the center of modern Beijing. The Secretariat directly administ ...
, could be securely supplied with grain grown in the Changjiang delta. The project's failure in addition to a slew of natural disasters drew harsh criticism from his detractors, leading to his resignation in June 1344. In the summer of 1344, the Yellow River shifted its course, causing droughts in the Huai River valley. Toqto'a's successor, Berke Bukha, had no answer to the crisis, which was exacerbated by the coastal rebellion of Fang Guozhen, whose fleet interdicted most of the grain shipments headed for the capital. In August 1349, Toqto'a returned to power with the support of the emperor. In April 1351, Toqto'a tried once again to tame the Yellow River and Grand Canal through the mass mobilization of rural farmers, leading to the Red Turban Rebellion. After initial rebel victories, the Yuan armies were able to rally and suppress most of the Red Turbans by 1353. In October 1353, Toqto'a personally recovered Xuzhou, forcing the rebels Peng Da and Zhao Junyong to flee to Haozhou. Toqto'a was dismissed in January 1355 due to court intrigue while he was successfully campaigning against Zhang Shicheng. After his removal, the offensive against Zhang fell apart, and the Yuan court lost the last vestige of control it held over its own military forces.


Chaghan Temur

Chaghan Temur Chaghan Temur (, Mongolian:{{MongolUnicode, ᠼᠠᠭᠠᠨᠲᠡᠮᠦᠷ), Courtesy name Tingrui (廷瑞), was a Yuan dynasty officer and military leader of Naiman Kazakh ethnicity. Life Chaghan Temur's family originated from Beshbaliq, toda ...
was a fourth generation descendant of a Naiman clan that had settled in Shenqiu on the eastern border of Henan. Chaghan Temur's great-grandfather assisted the Mongol conquest of China in the 13th century. Although originally Turkic, by the time of the Red Turban Rebellions, Chaghan Temur's lineage more closely aligned with both Mongol and Chinese culture. Chaghan Temur once sat the
imperial examinations The imperial examination (; lit. "subject recommendation") refers to a civil-service examination system in Imperial China, administered for the purpose of selecting candidates for the state bureaucracy. The concept of choosing bureaucrats by ...
and sometimes used the surname Li. In the late 1340s, Chaghan Temur built a military force to protect his locality from the rebels. Starting in 1352, he won a string of victories against the Red Turbans and for a time in 1358 and 1359, based his operations in Kaifeng. By the end of the 1350s, Chaghan Temur was the most powerful regional leader under the Mongols' service. Chaghan Temur's rival, Bolad Temur, the commander of
Shanxi Shanxi (; ; formerly romanised as Shansi) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China and is part of the North China region. The capital and largest city of the province is Taiyuan, while its next most populated prefecture-lev ...
, refused to aid him. Bolad Temur's efforts to overthrow Chaghan Temur and destroy Köke Temür paralyzed the court until his death in 1365. As a result, Chaghan Temur ignored orders from the court and moved troops of his own will. Chaghan Temur was assassinated in 1362 by Tian Feng and Wang Shicheng, two former Yuan generals who then fled to join the rebels.


Köke Temür

Köke Temür, originally named Wang Baobao, was the adopted son and nephew of
Chaghan Temur Chaghan Temur (, Mongolian:{{MongolUnicode, ᠼᠠᠭᠠᠨᠲᠡᠮᠦᠷ), Courtesy name Tingrui (廷瑞), was a Yuan dynasty officer and military leader of Naiman Kazakh ethnicity. Life Chaghan Temur's family originated from Beshbaliq, toda ...
through his sister. Wang Baobao received the name Köke Temür from Toghon Temür in 1361 when he delivered a shipment of grain to the capital. He succeeded his adoptive father when he died in 1362. Upon his father's death, Köke Temür was tasked with retaking
Shandong Shandong ( , ; ; alternately romanized as Shantung) is a coastal province of the People's Republic of China and is part of the East China region. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history since the beginning of Chinese civilizati ...
from the rebels. He besieged the rebel base at Yidu and after several months, brought it down by tunneling under the walls. He captured the assassins of Chaghan Temur, Tian Feng and Wang Shicheng, and sacrificed them to his father's spirit. Meanwhile, due to Bolad Temur's machinations at court to remove crown prince Ayushiridara, Köke Temür remained estranged from court. Bolad Temur and Köke Temür engaged in open warfare in
Shanxi Shanxi (; ; formerly romanised as Shansi) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China and is part of the North China region. The capital and largest city of the province is Taiyuan, while its next most populated prefecture-lev ...
, which turned in Köke Temür's favor in 1363. Bolad Temur fled to the capital and seized control of it himself in 1364. Bolad Temur was assassinated in August 1365, after which Köke Temür escorted Ayushiridara back to the capital, where he remained for some time before returning to Henan. Köke Temür went to war with
Li Siqi Li Siqi may refer to: * Louise Lee (born 1950), or Louise Lee Si-kei, Hong Kong actress and newscaster * Li Siqi (footballer) Li Siqi (; born 30 August 1997) is a Chinese footballer currently playing as a midfielder or defender for Yanbian Lon ...
, Zhang Liangbi, Törebeg, and Kong Xing. The latter three being former associates of Bolad. The emperor ordered Köke Temür to ignore them and defend the north from the Ming dynasty, but Köke Temür ignored his orders. In February 1368, Köke Temür was dismissed from office, and the other warlords ordered to crush him. Köke Temür won the subsequent battles and remained the strongest warlord in the north. Köke Temür came into conflict with the Ming anyways and was defeated in battle on 26 April.
Khanbaliq Khanbaliq or Dadu of Yuan () was the winter capital of the Yuan dynasty of China in what is now Beijing, also the capital of the People's Republic of China today. It was located at the center of modern Beijing. The Secretariat directly administ ...
fell to the Ming on 20 September. The Yuan emperor fled to Köke Temür, who took his remaining forces and retreated into Mongolia. The other warlords in the northwest refused to cooperate with Köke Temür even as they fell one by one to the Ming. On 3 May, Ming forces led by Xu Da found Köke Temür in eastern
Gansu Gansu (, ; alternately romanized as Kansu) is a province in Northwest China. Its capital and largest city is Lanzhou, in the southeast part of the province. The seventh-largest administrative district by area at , Gansu lies between the Tibet ...
. The Mongol forces were more numerous than anticipated so the Ming troops took up a defensive position behind a stream. Köke Temür attacked and outflanked the southwestern wing of the Ming army, very nearly routing them. However the Ming army managed to rally and counterattacked successfully the next day, destroying the Mongols. Despite his losses, Köke Temür escaped total destruction and remained active in the desert. Meanwhile, Toghon Temür died at Yingchang on 23 May 1370 while his son, Biligtü Khan Ayushiridara, fled further into Mongolia. Ayushiridara's son, Maidarbal, and 5,000 Mongol warriors were captured by the Ming. In 1372, an anti-Mongol army 150,000 strong was assembled under Xu Da, Li Wenzhong, and Feng Sheng. Xu Da marched across the
Gobi Desert The Gobi Desert (Chinese: 戈壁 (沙漠), Mongolian: Говь (ᠭᠣᠪᠢ)) () is a large desert or brushland region in East Asia, and is the sixth largest desert in the world. Geography The Gobi measures from southwest to northeast an ...
in search of Köke Temür. On 23 April, a Ming division caught a part of the Mongol army by the Tuul River and defeated it, causing Köke Temür to avoid combat for the next month. After marching fruitlessly in search of the Mongols, the Ming army was defeated in an engagement on 7 June. Xu Da took the remaining survivors and retreated from Mongolia. In early July, Li Wenzhong encountered another Mongol force under Manzi Kharajang by the Tuul River and pursued them to the
Orkhon River The Orkhon River (; mn, Орхон гол, ''Orkhon gol'', Old Chinese: 安侯水 ''(*arhoushui)'') is a river in Mongolia. The Orkhon river derives its name from the Old Turkic prefix "or" meaning "middle", and "khan" or king. It rises in ...
. The Mongols turned to face them and counterattacked with unexpected force, causing the Ming army to take the defensive position. The Ming soldiers slaughtered their livestock and used their corpses as a line of defense. The Mongols withdrew and Li was able to retreat. Feng Sheng successfully cleared the path westward to
Dunhuang Dunhuang () is a county-level city in Northwestern Gansu Province, Western China. According to the 2010 Chinese census, the city has a population of 186,027, though 2019 estimates put the city's population at about 191,800. Dunhuang was a major ...
and retook the Hexi Corridor for the Ming. In November 1373, Köke Temür tried to take
Datong Datong is a prefecture-level city in northern Shanxi Province in the People's Republic of China. It is located in the Datong Basin at an elevation of and borders Inner Mongolia to the north and west and Hebei to the east. As of the 2020 cens ...
. He suffered a disastrous defeat against Xu Da, who force marched his army through a snowstorm to attack the Mongol forces on 29 November. Köke Temür died in September 1375 at Khara Nokhai, northwest of Karakorum.


Li Siqi

Li Siqi Li Siqi may refer to: * Louise Lee (born 1950), or Louise Lee Si-kei, Hong Kong actress and newscaster * Li Siqi (footballer) Li Siqi (; born 30 August 1997) is a Chinese footballer currently playing as a midfielder or defender for Yanbian Lon ...
was a friend of
Chaghan Temur Chaghan Temur (, Mongolian:{{MongolUnicode, ᠼᠠᠭᠠᠨᠲᠡᠮᠦᠷ), Courtesy name Tingrui (廷瑞), was a Yuan dynasty officer and military leader of Naiman Kazakh ethnicity. Life Chaghan Temur's family originated from Beshbaliq, toda ...
who participated in the early military campaigns of the latter against the Red Turbans. By the end of the 1350s Li had become the dominant local power in Shaanxi. After Chaghan Temur's death, Li refused to acknowledge Köke Temür as Chaghan Temur's successor and went to war with him. Li surrendered to the Ming dynasty on 21 May 1369.


Chen Youding

Chen Youding Chen Youding (; 1330–1368), was a Yuan dynasty military leader who quelled various uprisings at the end of Yuan dynasty (including the Ispah rebellion). He was finally promoted to the highest official in Fujian because of his military leadership ...
was born to an illiterate farmer's family in
Fuzhou Fuzhou (; , Fuzhounese: Hokchew, ''Hók-ciŭ''), alternately romanized as Foochow, is the capital and one of the largest cities in Fujian province, China. Along with the many counties of Ningde, those of Fuzhou are considered to constitute t ...
. Orphaned at an early age, he joined the military in the 1350s and was given charge of a police detachment. However his military capabilities far outstripped his station and he became chief of the provincial government within 10 years. He ruled with an iron hand which drove many of his subordinates to defect. When captured by Zhu Yuanzhang in 1368, Chen continued to show belligerence, bellowing at the Ming emperor, "The state is demolished and my family is gone. I shall die; what more is there to talk about?" He and his son were executed.


He Zhen

He Zhen was an orphan who nonetheless received an education in both brush and sword. He held office in government briefly before leading a local defense corps. He succeeded in recapturing a local prefectural city from bandits and was rewarded with office in the prefecture. In 1363 he led provincial armies to recapture Guangzhou from pirates. He became head of the provincial government in 1366. When the Ming armies approached in 1368, he readily gave up his position ans surrendered. After an interview with Zhu Yuanzhang in Nanjing, he was awarded with honors and posts in the provincial government. He Zhen retired at the age of 65 in 1387 and was made hereditary earl.


Balasawarmi

Basalawarmi, the Prince of Liang, and head of government in Yunnan, committed suicide when the region was conquered by the Ming dynasty in 1382. Yunnan played no major role in the events of the 1350s and 1360s.


Naghachu

Naghachu Naghachu ( mn, Naγaču, script=Latn; ; d. 1388), also written as Nahacu, was an ethnic Mongol leader and general of the Northern Yuan in Manchuria, which was under Liaoyang province of the former Yuan dynasty. Originally a Yuan official, he had wo ...
was a Mongol leader captured by Zhu Yuanzhang in 1355. He was released in the hope of creating good will with the Mongols, but he left to create an independent Mongol military establishment in Liaodong He remained a constant source of trouble until he was defeated in 1387. Naghachu was granted a marquisate and died on 31 August 1388, probably from alcohol abuse.


Mass relocations

Following the victory, Zhu Yuanzhang ordered mass relocations across China. People from Shanxi were deported into other provinces in northern China including Hebei, Henan and Shandong which had been devastated by plague and famine. Zhu Yuanzhang moved people from Shandong, Guangdong, Hebei, Shanxi and Lake Taihu to settle in his hometown of Fengyang, around 500,000 people in 1367. Guizhou and Yunnan were colonized by soldiers from Anhui, Suzhou and Shanghai from Nanjing numbering 100,000. Sichuan was resettled by people from Hubei and Hunan, Hubei and Hunan were resettled by people from Jiangxi and Henan, Shandong, Beijing, Hezhou and Chuzhou were resettled by people from Shanxi and western Zhejiang while northern Henan and Hebei was resettled by people from Shanxi. The migration has been remembered in legends and novels. Fengyang was resettled by people from southern China and Jiangnan. In the early Ming dynasty, the population in North and Central China was declining due to wars. In order to increase the population and start the economic recovery of these war-torn areas, the Ming government organized many large-scale forced mass migration to the area. People were moved from
Shanxi Shanxi (; ; formerly romanised as Shansi) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China and is part of the North China region. The capital and largest city of the province is Taiyuan, while its next most populated prefecture-lev ...
province, which had been less affected by the wars, to the war-torn, less-populated area of North and Central China. The people were ordered to move to a location near "the tree" (大槐樹), and prepare themselves for the family migration. The Shanxi Xiao family were part of this group of "immigrants under the tree", which were moved to the modern provinces of Henan,
Shandong Shandong ( , ; ; alternately romanized as Shantung) is a coastal province of the People's Republic of China and is part of the East China region. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history since the beginning of Chinese civilizati ...
, Hebei, Beijing, Tianjin, Shaanxi,
Gansu Gansu (, ; alternately romanized as Kansu) is a province in Northwest China. Its capital and largest city is Lanzhou, in the southeast part of the province. The seventh-largest administrative district by area at , Gansu lies between the Tibet ...
, Ningxia, Anhui, Jiangsu, Hubei, Hunan,
Guangxi Guangxi (; ; Chinese postal romanization, alternately romanized as Kwanghsi; ; za, Gvangjsih, italics=yes), officially the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region (GZAR), is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the People's Republic ...
,
Liaoning Liaoning () is a coastal province in Northeast China that is the smallest, southernmost, and most populous province in the region. With its capital at Shenyang, it is located on the northern shore of the Yellow Sea, and is the northernmost ...
, Jilin, Heilongjiang,
Shanxi Shanxi (; ; formerly romanised as Shansi) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China and is part of the North China region. The capital and largest city of the province is Taiyuan, while its next most populated prefecture-lev ...
and other places. Today, the Xiao family still has memorial tablets dedicated to their ancestors among the "immigrants under the tree" at the fourth cabinet of the memorial hall at the "large tree roots memorial garden".


See also

*
Ispah Rebellion The Ispah rebellion () were a series of civil wars in the middle of 14th century in Fujian during the Yuan dynasty. The term Ispah might derive from the Persian word "سپاه" (''sepâh''), meaning "army" or " Sepoy". Thus, the rebellion is also ...
*
Battle of Lake Poyang The Battle of Lake Poyang () was a naval conflict which took place (30 August – 4 October 1363) between the rebel forces of Zhu Yuanzhang and Chen Youliang during the Red Turban Rebellion which led to the fall of the Yuan dynasty. Chen Youlian ...
* Ming–Mong Mao War *
Ming campaign against the Uriankhai The Ming campaign against the Uriankhai, or the Battle of Jinshan (), was a 1387 offensive military expedition of the Ming dynasty's army led by General Feng Sheng against the Uriankhai horde of the Mongol chieftain Naghachu in Manchuria. It con ...
*
Battle of Buir Lake The Battle of Buir Lake (sometimes spelled Battle of Buyur Lake; ), was fought between the Ming dynasty and the Northern Yuan at Buir Lake in 1388. The Ming army was led by General Lan Yu, who undertook the military campaign against Uskhal Kha ...
* Jingnan campaign *
Battle of Kherlen The Battle of Kherlen () was a battle between the Northern Yuan and Ming dynasties that took place at the banks of Kherlen River (Kerulen) in the Mongolian Plateau on 23 September 1409. After Bunyashiri had been crowned with the regnal title ...
* Yongle Emperor's Northern campaigns


References


Bibliography

* *


External links

* {{Ming dynasty topics Battles of the Yuan dynasty * 14th century in China 14th-century rebellions 1350s in the Mongol Empire 1360s in the Mongol Empire