General anesthesia
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General anaesthesia (UK) or general anesthesia (US) is medically induced loss of
consciousness Consciousness, at its simplest, is awareness of a state or object, either internal to oneself or in one's external environment. However, its nature has led to millennia of analyses, explanations, and debate among philosophers, scientists, an ...
that renders a patient unarousable even by painful stimuli. It is achieved through medications, which can be injected or inhaled, often with an
analgesic An analgesic drug, also called simply an analgesic, antalgic, pain reliever, or painkiller, is any member of the group of drugs used for pain management. Analgesics are conceptually distinct from anesthetics, which temporarily reduce, and in s ...
and neuromuscular blocking agent. General anaesthesia is usually performed in an
operating theatre An operating theater (also known as an Operating Room (OR), operating suite, operation suite, or Operation Theatre (OT)) is a facility within a hospital where surgical operations are carried out in an aseptic environment. Historically, the ter ...
to allow surgical procedures that would otherwise be intolerably painful for a patient, or in an
intensive care unit An intensive care unit (ICU), also known as an intensive therapy unit or intensive treatment unit (ITU) or critical care unit (CCU), is a special department of a hospital or health care facility that provides intensive care medicine. An inten ...
or
emergency department An emergency department (ED), also known as an accident and emergency department (A&E), emergency room (ER), emergency ward (EW) or casualty department, is a medical treatment facility specializing in emergency medicine, the Acute (medicine), ...
to facilitate endotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation in critically ill patients. Depending on the procedure, general anaesthesia may be optional or required. No matter whether the patient prefers to be unconscious or not, certain pain stimuli can lead to involuntary responses from the patient, such as movement or muscle contractions, that make the operation extremely difficult. Thus, for many procedures, general anaesthesia is necessary from a practical point of view. The patient's natural breathing may be inadequate during the procedure and intervention is often necessary to protect the airway. Various
drugs A drug is any chemical substance other than a nutrient or an essential dietary ingredient, which, when administered to a living organism, produces a biological effect. Consumption of drugs can be via inhalation, injection, smoking, ingestio ...
are used to achieve
unconsciousness Unconsciousness is a state in which a living individual exhibits a complete, or near-complete, inability to maintain an awareness of self and environment or to respond to any human or environmental stimulus. Unconsciousness may occur as the r ...
,
amnesia Amnesia is a deficit in memory caused by brain damage or brain diseases,Gazzaniga, M., Ivry, R., & Mangun, G. (2009) Cognitive Neuroscience: The biology of the mind. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. but it can also be temporarily caused by t ...
,
analgesia Pain management is an aspect of medicine and health care involving relief of pain (pain relief, analgesia, pain control) in various dimensions, from acute and simple to chronic and challenging. Most physicians and other health professionals ...
, loss of reflexes of the
autonomic nervous system The autonomic nervous system (ANS), sometimes called the visceral nervous system and formerly the vegetative nervous system, is a division of the nervous system that operates viscera, internal organs, smooth muscle and glands. The autonomic nervo ...
, and in some cases
paralysis Paralysis (: paralyses; also known as plegia) is a loss of Motor skill, motor function in one or more Skeletal muscle, muscles. Paralysis can also be accompanied by a loss of feeling (sensory loss) in the affected area if there is sensory d ...
of
skeletal muscle Skeletal muscle (commonly referred to as muscle) is one of the three types of vertebrate muscle tissue, the others being cardiac muscle and smooth muscle. They are part of the somatic nervous system, voluntary muscular system and typically are a ...
s. The best combination of anaesthetics for a given patient and procedure is chosen by an
anaesthetist Anesthesiology, anaesthesiology or anaesthesia is the medical specialty concerned with the total perioperative care of patients before, during and after surgery. It encompasses anesthesia, intensive care medicine, critical emergency medicine, a ...
or other specialist in consultation with the patient and the
surgeon In medicine, a surgeon is a medical doctor who performs surgery. Even though there are different traditions in different times and places, a modern surgeon is a licensed physician and received the same medical training as physicians before spec ...
or practitioner performing the procedure.


History

Attempts at producing general anaesthesia can be traced throughout recorded history in the writings of the ancient
Sumer Sumer () is the earliest known civilization, located in the historical region of southern Mesopotamia (now south-central Iraq), emerging during the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age, early Bronze Ages between the sixth and fifth millennium BC. ...
ians,
Babylonia Babylonia (; , ) was an Ancient history, ancient Akkadian language, Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in the city of Babylon in central-southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq and parts of Kuwait, Syria and Iran). It emerged as a ...
ns,
Assyria Assyria (Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: , ''māt Aššur'') was a major ancient Mesopotamian civilization that existed as a city-state from the 21st century BC to the 14th century BC and eventually expanded into an empire from the 14th century BC t ...
ns,
Egyptians Egyptians (, ; , ; ) are an ethnic group native to the Nile, Nile Valley in Egypt. Egyptian identity is closely tied to Geography of Egypt, geography. The population is concentrated in the Nile Valley, a small strip of cultivable land stretchi ...
,
Greeks Greeks or Hellenes (; , ) are an ethnic group and nation native to Greece, Greek Cypriots, Cyprus, Greeks in Albania, southern Albania, Greeks in Turkey#History, Anatolia, parts of Greeks in Italy, Italy and Egyptian Greeks, Egypt, and to a l ...
, Romans, Indians, and Chinese. During the
Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and ...
, scholars made advances in the
Eastern world The Eastern world, also known as the East or historically the Orient, is an umbrella term for various cultures or social structures, nations and philosophical systems, which vary depending on the context. It most often includes Asia, the ...
and Europe. The
Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) is a Periodization, period of history and a European cultural movement covering the 15th and 16th centuries. It marked the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and was characterized by an effort to revive and sur ...
saw advances in
anatomy Anatomy () is the branch of morphology concerned with the study of the internal structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is a branch of natural science that deals with the structural organization of living things. It is an old scien ...
and surgical technique. However, surgery remained a treatment of last resort. Largely because of the associated
pain Pain is a distressing feeling often caused by intense or damaging Stimulus (physiology), stimuli. The International Association for the Study of Pain defines pain as "an unpleasant sense, sensory and emotional experience associated with, or res ...
, many patients chose certain death over surgery. Although there has been debate as to who deserves the most credit for the discovery of general anaesthesia, scientific discoveries in the late 18th and early 19th centuries were critical to the eventual introduction and development of modern anaesthetic techniques. Two enormous leaps occurred in the late 19th century, which allowed the transition to modern surgery. An appreciation of the
germ theory of disease The germ theory of disease is the currently accepted scientific theory for many diseases. It states that microorganisms known as pathogens or "germs" can cause disease. These small organisms, which are too small to be seen without magnification, ...
led to the development of
antiseptic An antiseptic ( and ) is an antimicrobial substance or compound that is applied to living tissue to reduce the possibility of sepsis, infection, or putrefaction. Antiseptics are generally distinguished from ''antibiotics'' by the latter's abil ...
techniques in surgery. Antisepsis, which soon gave way to
asepsis Asepsis is the state of being free from disease-causing micro-organisms (such as pathogenic bacteria, viruses, pathogenic fungi, and parasites). There are two categories of asepsis: medical and surgical. The modern day notion of asepsis is deri ...
, reduced the overall
morbidity A disease is a particular abnormal condition that adversely affects the structure or function of all or part of an organism and is not immediately due to any external injury. Diseases are often known to be medical conditions that are asso ...
and mortality of surgery to a far more acceptable rate. Concurrently, significant advances in
pharmacology Pharmacology is the science of drugs and medications, including a substance's origin, composition, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, therapeutic use, and toxicology. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur betwee ...
and
physiology Physiology (; ) is the science, scientific study of function (biology), functions and mechanism (biology), mechanisms in a life, living system. As a branches of science, subdiscipline of biology, physiology focuses on how organisms, organ syst ...
led to the development of general anaesthesia. On 14 November 1804, Hanaoka Seishū, a Japanese surgeon, became the first person on record to perform successful surgery using general anaesthesia. In the 20th century, general anaesthesia's safety and efficacy improved with routine
tracheal intubation Tracheal intubation, usually simply referred to as intubation, is the placement of a flexible plastic catheter, tube into the vertebrate trachea, trachea (windpipe) to maintain an open airway or to serve as a conduit through which to administer c ...
and other advanced
airway management Airway management includes a set of maneuvers and medical procedures performed to prevent and relieve an airway obstruction. This ensures an open pathway for gas exchange between a patient's lungs and the atmosphere. This is accomplished by either ...
techniques. Advances in monitoring and new anaesthetic agents with improved
pharmacokinetic Pharmacokinetics (from Ancient Greek ''pharmakon'' "drug" and ''kinetikos'' "moving, putting in motion"; see chemical kinetics), sometimes abbreviated as PK, is a branch of pharmacology dedicated to describing how the body affects a specific subs ...
and
pharmacodynamic Pharmacodynamics (PD) is the study of the biochemistry, biochemical and physiology, physiologic effects of drugs (especially pharmaceutical drugs). The effects can include those manifested within animals (including humans), microorganisms, or comb ...
characteristics also contributed to this trend, and standardized training programs for anaesthesiologists and nurse anaesthetists emerged.


Purpose

General anaesthesia has many purposes and is routinely used in many surgical procedures. An appropriate surgical anaesthesia should include the following goals: # Hypnosis/Unconsciousness (loss of awareness) # Analgesia (loss of response to pain) # Amnesia (loss of memory) # Immobility (loss of motor reflexes) # Paralysis (skeletal muscle relaxation and normal muscle relaxation) Instead of receiving continuous deep sedation, such as via benzodiazepines, dying patients may choose to be completely unconscious as they die.


Biochemical mechanism of action

The
biochemical Biochemistry, or biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. A sub-discipline of both chemistry and biology, biochemistry may be divided into three fields: structural biology, enzymology, ...
mechanism of action of general anaesthetics is not fully understood. Anaesthetics have myriad sites of action and affect the
central nervous system The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting primarily of the brain, spinal cord and retina. The CNS is so named because the brain integrates the received information and coordinates and influences the activity o ...
(CNS) at several levels. General anaesthesia interrupts or changes the functions of CNS components including the
cerebral cortex The cerebral cortex, also known as the cerebral mantle, is the outer layer of neural tissue of the cerebrum of the brain in humans and other mammals. It is the largest site of Neuron, neural integration in the central nervous system, and plays ...
,
thalamus The thalamus (: thalami; from Greek language, Greek Wikt:θάλαμος, θάλαμος, "chamber") is a large mass of gray matter on the lateral wall of the third ventricle forming the wikt:dorsal, dorsal part of the diencephalon (a division of ...
,
reticular activating system The reticular formation is a set of interconnected nuclei in the brainstem that spans from the lower end of the medulla oblongata to the upper end of the midbrain. The neurons of the reticular formation make up a complex set of neural networks ...
, and
spinal cord The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular structure made up of nervous tissue that extends from the medulla oblongata in the lower brainstem to the lumbar region of the vertebral column (backbone) of vertebrate animals. The center of the spinal c ...
. Theories of anaesthesia identify target sites in the CNS,
neural network A neural network is a group of interconnected units called neurons that send signals to one another. Neurons can be either biological cells or signal pathways. While individual neurons are simple, many of them together in a network can perfor ...
s and arousal circuits linked with unconsciousness, and some anaesthetics can potentially activate specific sleep-active regions. Two non-exclusionary mechanisms include membrane-mediated and direct protein-mediated anesthesia. Potential protein-mediated molecular targets are GABAA,and NMDA glutamate receptors. General anaesthesia was thought to enhance the inhibitory transmission or to reduce the excitatory transmission of neuro signaling. Most volatile anaesthetics have been found to be a GABAA
agonist An agonist is a chemical that activates a Receptor (biochemistry), receptor to produce a biological response. Receptors are Cell (biology), cellular proteins whose activation causes the cell to modify what it is currently doing. In contrast, an R ...
, although the site of action on the receptor remains unknown.
Ketamine Ketamine is a cyclohexanone-derived general anesthetic and NMDA receptor antagonist with analgesic and hallucinogenic properties, used medically for anesthesia, depression, and pain management. Ketamine exists as its S- (esketamine) a ...
is a non-competitive
NMDA receptor antagonist NMDA receptor antagonists are a class of drugs that work to receptor antagonist, antagonize, or inhibit the action of, the NMDA, ''N''-Methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDA receptor, NMDAR). They are commonly used as anesthetics for humans and anima ...
. The chemical structure and properties of anaesthetics, as first noted by Meyer and Overton, suggest they could target the plasma membrane. A membrane-mediated mechanism that could account for the activation of an ion channel remained elusive until recently. A study from 2020 showed that inhaled anaesthetics (
chloroform Chloroform, or trichloromethane (often abbreviated as TCM), is an organochloride with the formula and a common solvent. It is a volatile, colorless, sweet-smelling, dense liquid produced on a large scale as a precursor to refrigerants and po ...
and isoflurane) could displace phospholipase D2 from ordered lipid domains in the plasma membrane, which led to the production of the signaling molecule phosphatidic acid (PA). The signaling molecule activated TWIK-related K+ channels (TREK-1), a channel involved in anaesthesia. PLDnull fruit flies were shown to resist anaesthesia. The results established a membrane mediated target for inhaled anaesthetics.


Preoperative evaluation

Before a procedure, the anaesthesiologist reviews medical records, interviews the patient, and examines them to determine an appropriate anaesthetic plan and decide what combination of drugs and dosages will be needed for the patient's comfort and safety during the procedure. A variety of non-invasive and invasive monitoring devices may be necessary to ensure a safe and effective procedure. Key factors in this evaluation are the patient's age, gender,
body mass index Body mass index (BMI) is a value derived from the mass (Mass versus weight, weight) and height of a person. The BMI is defined as the human body weight, body mass divided by the square (algebra), square of the human height, body height, and is ...
, medical and surgical history, current medications, exercise capacity, and fasting time. Thorough and accurate preoperative evaluation is crucial for the effective safety of the anaesthetic plan. For example, a patient who consumes significant quantities of
alcohol Alcohol may refer to: Common uses * Alcohol (chemistry), a class of compounds * Ethanol, one of several alcohols, commonly known as alcohol in everyday life ** Alcohol (drug), intoxicant found in alcoholic beverages ** Alcoholic beverage, an alco ...
or
illicit drugs The prohibition of drugs through sumptuary legislation or religious law is a common means of attempting to prevent the recreational use of certain intoxicating substances. An area has a prohibition of drugs when its government uses the for ...
could be undermedicated during the procedure if they fail to disclose this fact, and this could lead to anaesthesia awareness or intraoperative
hypertension Hypertension, also known as high blood pressure, is a Chronic condition, long-term Disease, medical condition in which the blood pressure in the artery, arteries is persistently elevated. High blood pressure usually does not cause symptoms i ...
. Commonly used medications can also interact with anaesthetics, and failure to disclose such usage can increase the risk during the operation. Inaccurate timing of last meal can also increase the risk for aspiration of food, and lead to serious complications. An important aspect of pre-anaesthetic evaluation is an assessment of the patient's
airway The respiratory tract is the subdivision of the respiratory system involved with the process of conducting air to the alveoli for the purposes of gas exchange in mammals. The respiratory tract is lined with respiratory epithelium as respiratory ...
, involving inspection of the mouth opening and visualisation of the soft tissues of the
pharynx The pharynx (: pharynges) is the part of the throat behind the human mouth, mouth and nasal cavity, and above the esophagus and trachea (the tubes going down to the stomach and the lungs respectively). It is found in vertebrates and invertebrates ...
. The condition of teeth and location of dental crowns are checked, and neck flexibility and head extension are observed. The most commonly performed airway assessment is the Mallampati score, which evaluates the airway base on the ability to view airway structures with the mouth open and the tongue protruding. Mallampati tests alone have limited accuracy, and other evaluations are routinely performed addition to the Mallampati test including mouth opening, thyromental distance, neck range of motion, and mandibular protrusion. In a patient with suspected distorted airway anatomy, endoscopy or ultrasound is sometimes used to evaluate the airway before planning for the airway management.


Premedication

Prior to administration of a general anaesthetic, the anaesthetist may administer one or more drugs that complement or improve the quality or safety of the anaesthetic or simply provide anxiolysis. Premedication also often has mild sedative effects and may reduce the amount of anaesthetic agent required during the case. One commonly used premedication is
clonidine Clonidine, sold under the brand name Catapres among others, is an α2A-adrenergic receptor agonist medication used to treat high blood pressure, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), drug withdrawal (e.g., alcohol, opioids, or nic ...
, an alpha-2 adrenergic agonist. It reduces postoperative shivering, postoperative nausea and vomiting, and emergence
delirium Delirium (formerly acute confusional state, an ambiguous term that is now discouraged) is a specific state of acute confusion attributable to the direct physiological consequence of a medical condition, effects of a psychoactive substance, or ...
. However, a randomized controlled trial from 2021 demonstrated that clonidine is less effective at providing anxiolysis and more sedative in children of preschool age. Oral clonidine can take up to 45 minutes to take full effect, The drawbacks of clonidine include
hypotension Hypotension, also known as low blood pressure, is a cardiovascular condition characterized by abnormally reduced blood pressure. Blood pressure is the force of blood pushing against the walls of the arteries as the heart pumps out blood and is ...
and
bradycardia Bradycardia, also called bradyarrhythmia, is a resting heart rate under 60 beats per minute (BPM). While bradycardia can result from various pathological processes, it is commonly a physiological response to cardiovascular conditioning or due ...
, but these can be advantageous in patients with hypertension and tachycardia. Another commonly used alpha-2 adrenergic agonist is dexmedetomidine, which is commonly used to provide a short term sedative effect (<24 hours). Dexmedetomidine and certain
atypical antipsychotic The atypical antipsychotics (AAP), also known as second generation antipsychotics (SGAs) and serotonin–dopamine antagonists (SDAs), are a group of antipsychotic drugs (antipsychotic drugs in general are also known as tranquilizers and neurol ...
agents may be also used in uncooperative children.
Benzodiazepine Benzodiazepines (BZD, BDZ, BZs), colloquially known as "benzos", are a class of central nervous system (CNS) depressant, depressant drugs whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring and a diazepine ring. They are prescribed t ...
s are the most commonly used class of drugs for premedication. The most commonly utilized benzodiazepine is
Midazolam Midazolam, sold under the brand name Versed among others, is a benzodiazepine medication used for anesthesia, premedication before surgical anesthesia, and procedural sedation, and to treat psychomotor agitation, severe agitation. It induces ...
, which is characterized by a rapid onset and short duration. Midazolam is effective in reducing preoperative anxiety, including
separation anxiety Separation anxiety disorder (SAD) is an anxiety disorder in which an individual experiences excessive anxiety regarding separation from home and/or from people to whom the individual has a strong emotional attachment (e.g., a parent, caregive ...
in children. It also provides mild sedation, sympathicolysis, and
anterograde amnesia In neurology, anterograde amnesia is the inability to create new memories after an event that caused amnesia, leading to a partial or complete inability to recall the recent past, while long-term memories from before the event remain intact. Thi ...
.
Melatonin Melatonin, an indoleamine, is a natural compound produced by various organisms, including bacteria and eukaryotes. Its discovery in 1958 by Aaron B. Lerner and colleagues stemmed from the isolation of a substance from the pineal gland of cow ...
has been found to be effective as an anaesthetic premedication in both adults and children because of its
hypnotic A hypnotic (from Ancient Greek, Greek ''Hypnos'', sleep), also known as a somnifacient or soporific, and commonly known as sleeping pills, are a class of psychoactive drugs whose primary function is to sleep induction, induce sleep and to trea ...
,
anxiolytic An anxiolytic (; also antipanic or anti-anxiety agent) is a medication or other intervention that reduces anxiety. This effect is in contrast to anxiogenic agents which increase anxiety. Anxiolytic medications are used for the treatment of anxie ...
,
sedative A sedative or tranquilliser is a substance that induces sedation by reducing irritability or Psychomotor agitation, excitement. They are central nervous system (CNS) Depressant, depressants and interact with brain activity, causing its decelera ...
,
analgesic An analgesic drug, also called simply an analgesic, antalgic, pain reliever, or painkiller, is any member of the group of drugs used for pain management. Analgesics are conceptually distinct from anesthetics, which temporarily reduce, and in s ...
, and
anticonvulsant Anticonvulsants (also known as antiepileptic drugs, antiseizure drugs, or anti-seizure medications (ASM)) are a diverse group of pharmacological agents used in the treatment of epileptic seizures. Anticonvulsants are also used in the treatme ...
properties. Recovery is more rapid after premedication with melatonin than with midazolam, and there is also a reduced incidence of post-operative agitation and delirium. Melatonin has been shown to have a similar effect in reducing perioperative anxiety in adult patients compared to benzodiazepine. Another example of anaesthetic premedication is the preoperative administration of beta adrenergic antagonists, which reduce the burden of arrhythmias after cardiac surgery. However, evidence also has shown an association of increased adverse events with beta-blockers in non-cardiac surgery. Anaesthesiologists may administer one or more
antiemetic An antiemetic is a drug that is effective against vomiting and nausea. Antiemetics are typically used to treat motion sickness and the side effects of opioid analgesics, general anaesthetics, and chemotherapy directed against cancer. They may ...
agents such as
ondansetron Ondansetron, sold under the brand name Zofran among others, is a medication used to prevent nausea and vomiting caused by chemotherapy, radiation therapy, migraines, or surgery. It is also effective for treating gastroenteritis. It can be giv ...
,
droperidol Droperidol (Inapsine, Droleptan, Dridol, Xomolix, Innovar fentanyl.html" ;"title="ombination with fentanyl">ombination with fentanyl is an antidopaminergic medication, drug used as an antiemetic (that is, to prevent or treat nausea) and as an ...
, or
dexamethasone Dexamethasone is a fluorinated glucocorticoid medication used to treat rheumatic problems, a number of skin diseases, severe allergies, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), croup, brain swelling, eye pain following eye su ...
to prevent postoperative nausea and vomiting. NSAIDs are commonly used analgesic premedication agent, and often reduce need for
opioid Opioids are a class of Drug, drugs that derive from, or mimic, natural substances found in the Papaver somniferum, opium poppy plant. Opioids work on opioid receptors in the brain and other organs to produce a variety of morphine-like effects, ...
s such as
fentanyl Fentanyl is a highly potent synthetic piperidine opioid primarily used as an analgesic (pain medication). It is 30 to 50 times more Potency (pharmacology), potent than heroin and 50 to 100 times more potent than morphine. Its primary Medici ...
or sufentanil. Also gastrokinetic agents such as
metoclopramide Metoclopramide is a medication used to treat nausea, vomiting, gastroparesis, and gastroesophageal reflux disease. It is also used to treat migraine headaches. Common side effects include feeling tired, diarrhea, akathisia, and tardive dyski ...
, and
histamine antagonist Antihistamines are drugs which treat allergic rhinitis, common cold, influenza, and other allergies. Typically, people take antihistamines as an inexpensive, generic (not patented) drug that can be bought without a prescription and provides r ...
s such as
famotidine Famotidine, sold under the brand name Pepcid among others, is a histamine H2 receptor antagonist medication that decreases stomach acid production. It is used to treat peptic ulcer disease, gastroesophageal reflux disease, and Zollinger–E ...
. Non-pharmacologic preanaesthetic interventions include playing
cognitive behavioral therapy Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a form of psychotherapy that aims to reduce symptoms of various mental health conditions, primarily depression, PTSD, and anxiety disorders. Cognitive behavioral therapy focuses on challenging and chang ...
, music therapy, aromatherapy, hypnosis
massage Massage is the rubbing or kneading of the body's soft tissues. Massage techniques are commonly applied with hands, fingers, elbows, knees, forearms, feet, or a device. The purpose of massage is generally for the treatment of body stress or pa ...
, pre-operative preparation video, and guided imagery relaxation therapy, etc. These techniques are particularly useful for children and patients with
intellectual disabilities Intellectual disability (ID), also known as general learning disability (in the United Kingdom), and formerly mental retardation (in the United States), Rosa's Law, Pub. L. 111-256124 Stat. 2643(2010).Archive is a generalized neurodevelopmental ...
. Minimizing sensory stimulation or distraction by video games may help to reduce anxiety prior to or during induction of general anaesthesia. Larger high-quality studies are needed to confirm the most effective non-pharmacological approaches for reducing this type of anxiety. Parental presence during premedication and induction of anaesthesia has not been shown to reduce anxiety in children. It is suggested that parents who wish to attend should not be actively discouraged, and parents who prefer not to be present should not be actively encouraged to attend.


Anaesthesia and the brain

Anaesthesia has little to no effect on brain function, unless there is an existing brain disruption. Barbiturates, or the drugs used to administer anaesthesia, do not affect auditory brain stem response. An example of a brain disruption would be a concussion. It can be risky and lead to further brain injury if anaesthesia is used on a concussed person. Concussions create ionic shifts in the brain that adjust the neuronal transmembrane potential. In order to restore this potential more glucose has to be made to equal the potential that is lost. This can be very dangerous and lead to cell death. This makes the brain very vulnerable in surgery. There are also changes to cerebral blood flow. The injury complicates the oxygen blood flow and supply to the brain.


Stages of anaesthesia

Guedel's classification, described by Arthur Ernest Guedel in 1937, describes four stages of anaesthesia. Despite newer anaesthetic agents and delivery techniques, which have led to more rapid onset of—and recovery from—anaesthesia (in some cases bypassing some of the stages entirely), the principles remain. ;Stage 1: Stage 1, also known as ''induction'', is the period between the administration of induction agents and loss of consciousness. During this stage, the patient progresses from analgesia without amnesia to analgesia with amnesia. Patients can carry on a conversation at this time, and may complain about visual disturbance. ;Stage 2: Stage 2, also known as the ''excitement or delirium stage'', is the period following loss of consciousness and marked by excited and delirious activity. During this stage, the patient's respiration and
heart rate Heart rate is the frequency of the cardiac cycle, heartbeat measured by the number of contractions of the heart per minute (''beats per minute'', or bpm). The heart rate varies according to the body's Human body, physical needs, including the nee ...
may become irregular. In addition, there may be uncontrolled movements, vomiting, suspension of breathing, and
pupillary dilation Pupillary response is a physiological response that varies the size of the pupil between 1.5 mm and 8 mm, via the optic and oculomotor cranial nerve. A constriction response (miosis), is the narrowing of the pupil, which may be caused by scler ...
. Because the combination of spastic movements, vomiting, and irregular respiration may compromise the patient's airway, rapidly acting drugs are used to minimize time in this stage and reach Stage 3 as fast as possible. ;Stage 3: In Stage 3, also known as ''surgical anaesthesia'', the skeletal muscles relax, vomiting stops. Respiratory depression and cessation of eye movements are the hallmarks of this stage. The patient is unconscious and ready for surgery. This stage is divided into four planes: :# The eyes roll, then become fixed; eyelid and swallow reflexes are lost. Still have regular spontaneous breathing; :# Corneal and laryngeal reflexes are lost; :# The pupillary light reflex is lost; and the process is marked by complete relaxation of abdominal and intercostal muscles. Ideal level of anesthesia for most surgeries. :# Full diaphragm paralysis and irregular shallow abdominal respiration occur. ;Stage 4: Stage 4, also known as ''overdose'', occurs when too much anaesthetic medication is given relative to the amount of surgical stimulation and the patient has severe
brainstem The brainstem (or brain stem) is the posterior stalk-like part of the brain that connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. In the human brain the brainstem is composed of the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata. The midbrain is conti ...
or medullary depression, resulting in a cessation of respiration and potential cardiovascular collapse. This stage is lethal without cardiovascular and respiratory support.: There are no EEG correlations between the different anesthesia stages that could be used to predict one from the previous one, however recent algorithms have been developed to assess patient sensitivity from the induction phase.


Induction

General anaesthesia is usually induced in an
operating theatre An operating theater (also known as an Operating Room (OR), operating suite, operation suite, or Operation Theatre (OT)) is a facility within a hospital where surgical operations are carried out in an aseptic environment. Historically, the ter ...
or in an anaesthetic room next to the theatre. It may also be induced in an
endoscopy An endoscopy is a procedure used in medicine to look inside the body. The endoscopy procedure uses an endoscope to examine the interior of a hollow organ or cavity of the body. Unlike many other medical imaging techniques, endoscopes are insert ...
suite,
intensive care unit An intensive care unit (ICU), also known as an intensive therapy unit or intensive treatment unit (ITU) or critical care unit (CCU), is a special department of a hospital or health care facility that provides intensive care medicine. An inten ...
,
radiology Radiology ( ) is the medical specialty that uses medical imaging to diagnose diseases and guide treatment within the bodies of humans and other animals. It began with radiography (which is why its name has a root referring to radiation), but tod ...
or
cardiology Cardiology () is the study of the heart. Cardiology is a branch of medicine that deals with disorders of the heart and the cardiovascular system. The field includes medical diagnosis and treatment of congenital heart defects, coronary artery di ...
department,
emergency department An emergency department (ED), also known as an accident and emergency department (A&E), emergency room (ER), emergency ward (EW) or casualty department, is a medical treatment facility specializing in emergency medicine, the Acute (medicine), ...
, ambulance, or even at the site of a
disaster A disaster is an event that causes serious harm to people, buildings, economies, or the environment, and the affected community cannot handle it alone. '' Natural disasters'' like avalanches, floods, earthquakes, and wildfires are caused by na ...
where extrication of the patient may be impractical. Anaesthetics can be administered by
inhalation Inhalation (or inspiration) happens when air or other gases enter the lungs. Inhalation of air Inhalation of air, as part of the cycle of breathing, is a vital process for all human life. The process is autonomic (though there are exceptions ...
,
injection Injection or injected may refer to: Science and technology * Injective function, a mathematical function mapping distinct arguments to distinct values * Injection (medicine), insertion of liquid into the body with a syringe * Injection, in broadca ...
(
intravenous Intravenous therapy (abbreviated as IV therapy) is a medical technique that administers fluids, medications and nutrients directly into a person's vein. The intravenous route of administration is commonly used for rehydration or to provide nutr ...
,
intramuscular Intramuscular injection, often abbreviated IM, is the injection of a substance into a muscle. In medicine, it is one of several methods for parenteral administration of medications. Intramuscular injection may be preferred because muscles hav ...
, or subcutaneous),
oral The word oral may refer to: Relating to the mouth * Relating to the mouth, the first portion of the alimentary canal that primarily receives food and liquid **Oral administration of medicines ** Oral examination (also known as an oral exam or ora ...
, or
rectal The rectum (: rectums or recta) is the final straight portion of the large intestine in humans and some other mammals, and the Gastrointestinal tract, gut in others. Before expulsion through the anus or cloaca, the rectum stores the feces te ...
routes. Once they enter the
circulatory system In vertebrates, the circulatory system is a system of organs that includes the heart, blood vessels, and blood which is circulated throughout the body. It includes the cardiovascular system, or vascular system, that consists of the heart ...
, the agents are transported to their biochemical sites of action in the central and autonomic nervous systems. Most general anaesthetics are intravenous or inhaled. Commonly used intravenous induction agents include
propofol Propofol is the active component of an intravenous anesthetic formulation used for induction and maintenance of general anesthesia. It is chemically termed 2,6-diisopropylphenol. The formulation was approved under the brand name Diprivan. Nu ...
,
sodium thiopental Sodium thiopental, also known as Sodium Pentothal (a trademark of Abbott Laboratories), thiopental, thiopentone, or Trapanal (also a trademark), is a rapid-onset short-acting barbiturate general anesthetic. It is the thiobarbiturate analog of ...
,
etomidate Etomidate (United States Adopted Name, USAN, International Nonproprietary Name, INN, British Approved Name, BAN; marketed as Amidate) is a short-acting intravenous anaesthetic agent used for the induction of general anaesthesia and sedation for ...
,
methohexital Methohexital or methohexitone (marketed under the brand names Brevital and Brietal) is a drug which is a barbiturate derivative. It is classified as short-acting, and has a rapid onset of action. It is similar in its effects to sodium thiopental ...
, and
ketamine Ketamine is a cyclohexanone-derived general anesthetic and NMDA receptor antagonist with analgesic and hallucinogenic properties, used medically for anesthesia, depression, and pain management. Ketamine exists as its S- (esketamine) a ...
. Inhalational anaesthesia may be chosen when intravenous access is difficult to obtain (e.g., children), when difficulty maintaining the airway is anticipated, or when the patient prefers it.
Sevoflurane Sevoflurane, sold under the brand name Sevorane, among others, is a sweet-smelling, nonflammable, highly fluorinated methyl isopropyl ether used as an inhalational anaesthetic for induction and maintenance of general anesthesia. After desflu ...
is the most commonly used agent for inhalational induction, because it is less irritating to the tracheobronchial tree than other agents. As an example sequence of induction drugs: # Pre-oxygenation or denitrogenation to fill lungs with 100% oxygen to permit a longer period of apnea during intubation without affecting blood oxygen levels #
Fentanyl Fentanyl is a highly potent synthetic piperidine opioid primarily used as an analgesic (pain medication). It is 30 to 50 times more Potency (pharmacology), potent than heroin and 50 to 100 times more potent than morphine. Its primary Medici ...
for systemic analgesia during intubation #
Propofol Propofol is the active component of an intravenous anesthetic formulation used for induction and maintenance of general anesthesia. It is chemically termed 2,6-diisopropylphenol. The formulation was approved under the brand name Diprivan. Nu ...
for sedation for intubation # Switching from oxygen to a mixture of oxygen and
inhalational anesthetic An inhalational anesthetic is a chemical compound possessing general anesthetic properties that is delivered via inhalation. They are administered through a face mask, laryngeal mask airway or tracheal tube connected to an anesthetic vaporiser ...
once intubation is complete Laryngoscopy and intubation are both very stimulating. The process of induction blunts the response to these manoeuvres while simultaneously inducing a near-coma state to prevent awareness.


Physiologic monitoring

Several monitoring technologies allow for a controlled induction of, maintenance of, and emergence from general anaesthesia. Standard for basic anesthetic monitoring is a guideline published by the ASA, which describes that the patient's oxygenation, ventilation, circulation and temperature should be continually evaluated during anesthetic. # Continuous
electrocardiography Electrocardiography is the process of producing an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG), a recording of the heart's electrical activity through repeated cardiac cycles. It is an electrogram of the heart which is a graph of voltage versus time of t ...
(ECG or EKG):
Electrode An electrode is an electrical conductor used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit (e.g. a semiconductor, an electrolyte, a vacuum or a gas). In electrochemical cells, electrodes are essential parts that can consist of a varie ...
s are placed on the patient's skin to monitor heart rate and rhythm. This may also help the anaesthesiologist to identify early signs of heart
ischaemia Ischemia or ischaemia is a restriction in blood supply to any tissue, muscle group, or organ of the body, causing a shortage of oxygen that is needed for cellular metabolism (to keep tissue alive). Ischemia is generally caused by problems ...
. Typically lead II and V5 are monitored for arrhythmias and ischemia, respectively. # Continuous
pulse oximetry Pulse oximetry is a noninvasive method for monitoring blood oxygen saturation. Peripheral oxygen saturation (SpO2) readings are typically within 2% accuracy (within 4% accuracy in 95% of cases) of the more accurate (and invasive) reading of art ...
(SpO2): A device is placed, usually on a finger, to allow for early detection of a fall in a patient's
hemoglobin Hemoglobin (haemoglobin, Hb or Hgb) is a protein containing iron that facilitates the transportation of oxygen in red blood cells. Almost all vertebrates contain hemoglobin, with the sole exception of the fish family Channichthyidae. Hemoglobin ...
saturation with oxygen ( hypoxaemia). # Blood pressure monitoring: There are two methods of measuring the patient's blood pressure. The first, and most common, is non-invasive blood pressure (NIBP) monitoring. This involves placing a blood pressure cuff around the patient's arm, forearm, or leg. A machine takes blood pressure readings at regular, preset intervals throughout the surgery. The second method is invasive blood pressure (IBP) monitoring, which allows beat to beat monitoring of blood pressure. This method is reserved for patients with significant heart or lung disease, the critically ill, and those undergoing major procedures such as cardiac or transplant surgery, or when large blood loss is expected. It involves placing a special type of plastic
cannula A cannula (; Latin meaning 'little reed'; : cannulae or cannulas) is a tube that can be inserted into the body, often for the delivery or removal of fluid or for the gathering of samples. In simple terms, a cannula can surround the inner or out ...
in an artery, usually in the wrist (
radial artery In human anatomy, the radial artery is the main artery of the lateral aspect of the forearm. Structure The radial artery arises from the bifurcation of the brachial artery in the antecubital fossa. It runs distally on the anterior part of the ...
) or groin (
femoral artery The femoral artery is a large artery in the thigh and the main arterial supply to the thigh and leg. The femoral artery gives off the deep femoral artery and descends along the anteromedial part of the thigh in the femoral triangle. It enters ...
). # Agent concentration measurement: anaesthetic machines typically have monitors to measure the percentage of inhalational anaesthetic agents used as well as exhalation concentrations. These monitors include measuring
oxygen Oxygen is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol, symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group (periodic table), group in the periodic table, a highly reactivity (chemistry), reactive nonmetal (chemistry), non ...
,
carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula . It is made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalent bond, covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is found in a gas state at room temperature and at norma ...
, and
inhalational anaesthetic An inhalational anesthetic is a chemical compound possessing general anesthetic properties that is delivered via inhalation. They are administered through a face mask, laryngeal mask airway or tracheal tube connected to an anesthetic vaporiser ...
s (e.g.,
nitrous oxide Nitrous oxide (dinitrogen oxide or dinitrogen monoxide), commonly known as laughing gas, nitrous, or factitious air, among others, is a chemical compound, an Nitrogen oxide, oxide of nitrogen with the Chemical formula, formula . At room te ...
,
isoflurane Isoflurane, sold under the brand name Forane among others, is a halogenated ether used as a general anesthetic. It can be used to start or maintain anesthesia; however, other medications are often used to start anesthesia, due to airway irritat ...
). # Oxygen measurement: Almost all circuits have an alarm in case oxygen delivery to the patient is compromised. The alarm goes off if the fraction of inspired oxygen drops below a set threshold. # A circuit disconnect alarm or low pressure alarm indicates failure of the circuit to achieve a given pressure during
mechanical ventilation Mechanical ventilation or assisted ventilation is the Medicine, medical term for using a ventilator, ventilator machine to fully or partially provide artificial ventilation. Mechanical ventilation helps move air into and out of the lungs, wit ...
. #
Capnography Capnography is the monitoring of the concentration or partial pressure of carbon dioxide () in the respiratory gases. Its main development has been as a monitoring tool for use during anesthesia and intensive care. It is usually presented as a g ...
measures the amount of
carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula . It is made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalent bond, covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is found in a gas state at room temperature and at norma ...
exhaled by the patient in percent or mmHg, allowing the anaesthesiologist to assess the adequacy of
ventilation Ventilation may refer to: * Ventilation (physiology), the movement of air between the environment and the lungs via inhalation and exhalation ** Mechanical ventilation, in medicine, using artificial methods to assist breathing *** Respirator, a ma ...
. MmHg is usually used to allow the provider to see more subtle changes. # Temperature measurement to discern
hypothermia Hypothermia is defined as a body core temperature below in humans. Symptoms depend on the temperature. In mild hypothermia, there is shivering and mental confusion. In moderate hypothermia, shivering stops and confusion increases. In severe ...
or fever, and to allow early detection of
malignant hyperthermia Malignant hyperthermia (MH) is a type of severe reaction that occurs in response to particular medications used during general anesthesia, among those who are susceptible. Symptoms include muscle rigidity, fever, and a fast heart rate. Complica ...
. #
Electroencephalography Electroencephalography (EEG) is a method to record an electrogram of the spontaneous electrical activity of the brain. The biosignal, bio signals detected by EEG have been shown to represent the postsynaptic potentials of pyramidal neurons in ...
, entropy monitoring, or other systems may be used to verify the depth of anaesthesia. This reduces the likelihood of anaesthesia awareness and of overdose.


Airway management

Anaesthetized patients lose protective airway reflexes (such as coughing), airway patency, and sometimes a regular breathing pattern due to anaesthetics,
opioid Opioids are a class of Drug, drugs that derive from, or mimic, natural substances found in the Papaver somniferum, opium poppy plant. Opioids work on opioid receptors in the brain and other organs to produce a variety of morphine-like effects, ...
s, or
muscle relaxant A muscle relaxant is a drug that affects skeletal muscle function and decreases the muscle tone. It may be used to alleviate symptoms such as muscle spasms, pain, and hyperreflexia. The term "muscle relaxant" is used to refer to two major therapeu ...
s. To maintain an open airway and regulate breathing, some form of breathing tube is inserted after the patient is unconscious. To enable
mechanical ventilation Mechanical ventilation or assisted ventilation is the Medicine, medical term for using a ventilator, ventilator machine to fully or partially provide artificial ventilation. Mechanical ventilation helps move air into and out of the lungs, wit ...
, an endotracheal tube is often used, although there are alternatives such as face masks or laryngeal mask airways. Generally, full mechanical ventilation is only used if a very deep state of general anaesthesia is to be induced, and/or with a profoundly ill or injured patient. Induction of general anaesthesia usually results in
apnea Apnea (also spelled apnoea in British English) is the temporary cessation of breathing. During apnea, there is no movement of the muscles of inhalation, and the volume of the lungs initially remains unchanged. Depending on how blocked the ...
and requires ventilation until the drugs wear off and spontaneous breathing starts. In other words, ventilation may be needed for induction and maintenance of general anaesthesia, or just during the induction. However, mechanical ventilation can provide ventilatory support during spontaneous breathing to ensure adequate gas exchange. General anaesthesia can also be induced with the patient spontaneously breathing and therefore maintaining their own oxygenation which can be beneficial in certain scenarios (e.g. difficult airway or tubeless surgery). Spontaneous ventilation has been traditionally maintained with inhalational agents (i.e. halothane or sevoflurane) which is called a gas or inhalational induction. Spontaneous ventilation can also be maintained using intravenous anaesthesia (e.g. propofol). Intravenous anaesthesia to maintain spontaneous respiration has certain advantages over inhalational agents (i.e. suppressed laryngeal reflexes) but requires careful titration. Spontaneous Respiration using Intravenous anaesthesia and High-flow nasal oxygen (STRIVE Hi) is a technique that has been used in difficult and obstructed airways.


Eye management

General anaesthesia reduces the tonic contraction of the
orbicularis oculi muscle The orbicularis oculi is a Sphincter, sphincter-like muscle in the face that closes the eyelids. It arises from the nasal part of the frontal bone, from the frontal process of the maxilla in front of the lacrimal groove, and from the anterior surf ...
, causing lagophthalmos (incomplete eye closure) in 59% of people. In addition, tear production and tear-film stability are reduced, resulting in corneal epithelial drying and reduced lysosomal protection. The protection afforded by Bell's phenomenon (in which the eyeball turns upward during sleep, protecting the cornea) is also lost. Careful management is required to reduce the likelihood of eye injuries during general anaesthesia. Some of the methods to prevent eye injury during general anesthesia includes taping the eyelids shut, use of eye ointments, and specially designed eye protective goggles.


Neuromuscular blockade

Paralysis, or temporary muscle relaxation with a neuromuscular blocker, is an integral part of modern anaesthesia. The first drug used for this purpose was
curare Curare ( or ; or ) is a common name for various alkaloid arrow poisons originating from plant extracts. Used as a paralyzing agent by indigenous peoples in Central and South America for hunting and for therapeutic purposes, curare only ...
, introduced in the 1940s, which has now been superseded by drugs with fewer side effects and, generally, shorter duration of action. Muscle relaxation allows surgery within major
body cavities A body cavity is any space or compartment, or potential space, in an animal body. Cavities accommodate organs and other structures; cavities as potential spaces contain fluid. The two largest human body cavities are the ventral body cavity, a ...
, such as the
abdomen The abdomen (colloquially called the gut, belly, tummy, midriff, tucky, or stomach) is the front part of the torso between the thorax (chest) and pelvis in humans and in other vertebrates. The area occupied by the abdomen is called the abdominal ...
and
thorax The thorax (: thoraces or thoraxes) or chest is a part of the anatomy of mammals and other tetrapod animals located between the neck and the abdomen. In insects, crustaceans, and the extinct trilobites, the thorax is one of the three main di ...
, without the need for very deep anaesthesia, and also facilitates endotracheal intubation.
Acetylcholine Acetylcholine (ACh) is an organic compound that functions in the brain and body of many types of animals (including humans) as a neurotransmitter. Its name is derived from its chemical structure: it is an ester of acetic acid and choline. Par ...
, a natural
neurotransmitter A neurotransmitter is a signaling molecule secreted by a neuron to affect another cell across a Chemical synapse, synapse. The cell receiving the signal, or target cell, may be another neuron, but could also be a gland or muscle cell. Neurotra ...
found at the
neuromuscular junction A neuromuscular junction (or myoneural junction) is a chemical synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber. It allows the motor neuron to transmit a signal to the muscle fiber, causing muscle contraction. Muscles require innervation to ...
, causes muscles to contract when it is released from nerve endings. Muscle paralytic drugs work by preventing acetylcholine from attaching to its receptor. Paralysis of the muscles of respiration—the diaphragm and
intercostal muscle The intercostal muscles comprise many different groups of muscle Muscle is a soft tissue, one of the four basic types of animal tissue. There are three types of muscle tissue in vertebrates: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle ...
s of the chest—requires that some form of artificial respiration be implemented. Because the muscles of the
larynx The larynx (), commonly called the voice box, is an organ (anatomy), organ in the top of the neck involved in breathing, producing sound and protecting the trachea against food aspiration. The opening of larynx into pharynx known as the laryngeal ...
are also paralysed, the airway usually needs to be protected by means of an endotracheal tube. Paralysis is most easily monitored by means of a peripheral nerve stimulator. This device intermittently sends short electrical pulses through the skin over a peripheral nerve while the contraction of a muscle supplied by that nerve is observed. The effects of muscle relaxants are commonly reversed at the end of surgery by anticholinesterase drugs, which are administered in combination with muscarinic
anticholinergic Anticholinergics (anticholinergic agents) are substances that block the action of the acetylcholine (ACh) neurotransmitter at synapses in the central nervous system, central and peripheral nervous system. These agents inhibit the parasympatheti ...
drugs to minimize side effects. Examples of skeletal muscle relaxants in use today are pancuronium, rocuronium,
vecuronium Vecuronium bromide, sold under the brand name Norcuron among others, is a medication used as part of general anesthesia to provide skeletal muscle relaxation during surgery or mechanical ventilation. It is also used to help with endotracheal ...
, cisatracurium, atracurium, mivacurium, and succinylcholine. Novel neuromuscular blockade reversal agents such as
sugammadex Sugammadex, sold under the brand name Bridion, is a medication for the reversal of neuromuscular blockade induced by rocuronium and vecuronium in general anaesthesia. It is the first selective relaxant binding agent (SRBA). It is marketed by ...
may also be used; it works by directly binding muscle relaxants and removing it from the neuromuscular junction. Sugammadex was approved for use in the United States in 2015, and rapidly gained popularity. A study from 2022 has shown that Sugammadex and neostigmine are likely similarly safe in the reversal of neuromuscular blockade.


Maintenance

The duration of action of intravenous induction agents is generally 5 to 10 minutes, after which spontaneous recovery of consciousness will occur. In order to prolong unconsciousness for the duration of surgery, anaesthesia must be maintained. This is achieved by allowing the patient to breathe a carefully controlled mixture of oxygen and a
volatile anaesthetic An inhalational anesthetic is a chemical compound possessing general anesthetic properties that is delivered via inhalation. They are administered through a face mask, laryngeal mask airway or tracheal tube connected to an anesthetic vaporiser ...
agent, or by administering intravenous medication (usually
propofol Propofol is the active component of an intravenous anesthetic formulation used for induction and maintenance of general anesthesia. It is chemically termed 2,6-diisopropylphenol. The formulation was approved under the brand name Diprivan. Nu ...
). Inhaled anaesthetic agents are also frequently supplemented by intravenous analgesic agents, such as
opioid Opioids are a class of Drug, drugs that derive from, or mimic, natural substances found in the Papaver somniferum, opium poppy plant. Opioids work on opioid receptors in the brain and other organs to produce a variety of morphine-like effects, ...
s (usually
fentanyl Fentanyl is a highly potent synthetic piperidine opioid primarily used as an analgesic (pain medication). It is 30 to 50 times more Potency (pharmacology), potent than heroin and 50 to 100 times more potent than morphine. Its primary Medici ...
or a fentanyl derivative) and
sedative A sedative or tranquilliser is a substance that induces sedation by reducing irritability or Psychomotor agitation, excitement. They are central nervous system (CNS) Depressant, depressants and interact with brain activity, causing its decelera ...
s (usually propofol or midazolam). Propofol can be used for total intravenous anaesthesia (TIVA), therefore supplementation by inhalation agents is not required. General anesthesia is usually considered safe; however, there are reported cases of patients with distortion of taste and/or smell due to local anesthetics, stroke, nerve damage, or as a side effect of general anesthesia. At the end of surgery, administration of anaesthetic agents is discontinued. Recovery of consciousness occurs when the concentration of anaesthetic in the brain drops below a certain level (this occurs usually within 1 to 30 minutes, mostly depending on the duration of surgery). In the 1990s, a novel method of maintaining anaesthesia was developed in
Glasgow Glasgow is the Cities of Scotland, most populous city in Scotland, located on the banks of the River Clyde in Strathclyde, west central Scotland. It is the List of cities in the United Kingdom, third-most-populous city in the United Kingdom ...
, Scotland. Called
target controlled infusion Target-controlled infusion (TCI) automates the dosing of intravenous drugs during surgery. After the anesthetist sets the desired parameters in a computer and presses the start button, the system controls the infusion pump, while being monitored ...
(TCI), it involves using a computer-controlled syringe driver (pump) to infuse propofol throughout the duration of surgery, removing the need for a volatile anaesthetic and allowing pharmacologic principles to more precisely guide the amount of the drug used by setting the desired drug concentration. Advantages include faster recovery from anaesthesia, reduced incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting, and absence of a trigger for
malignant hyperthermia Malignant hyperthermia (MH) is a type of severe reaction that occurs in response to particular medications used during general anesthesia, among those who are susceptible. Symptoms include muscle rigidity, fever, and a fast heart rate. Complica ...
. At present , TCI is not permitted in the United States, but a syringe pump delivering a specific rate of medication is commonly used instead. Other medications are occasionally used to treat side effects or prevent complications. They include antihypertensives to treat high blood pressure;
ephedrine Ephedrine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant and sympathomimetic agent that is often used to prevent hypotension, low blood pressure during anesthesia. It has also been used for asthma, narcolepsy, and obesity but is not the preferred ...
or
phenylephrine Phenylephrine, sold under the brand names Neosynephrine and Sudafed PE among others, is a medication used as a decongestant for uncomplicated nasal congestion in the form of a nasal spray or oral tablet, to dilate the pupil, to increase bloo ...
to treat low blood pressure;
salbutamol Salbutamol, also known as albuterol and sold under the brand name Ventolin among others, is a medication that opens up the medium and large airways in the lungs. It is a short-acting β2 adrenergic receptor agonist that causes relaxation of ...
to treat
asthma Asthma is a common long-term inflammatory disease of the airways of the lungs. It is characterized by variable and recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstruction, and easily triggered bronchospasms. Symptoms include episodes of wh ...
, laryngospasm, or
bronchospasm Bronchospasm or a bronchial spasm is a sudden bronchoconstriction, constriction of the muscles in the walls of the bronchioles. It is caused by the release (degranulation) of substances from mast cells or basophils under the influence of anaphylat ...
; and
epinephrine Adrenaline, also known as epinephrine, is a hormone and medication which is involved in regulating visceral functions (e.g., respiration). It appears as a white microcrystalline granule. Adrenaline is normally produced by the adrenal glands a ...
or
diphenhydramine Diphenhydramine, sold under the brand name Benadryl among others, is an antihistamine and sedative. Although generally considered sedating, diphenhydramine can cause paradoxical central nervous system stimulation in some individuals, particula ...
to treat allergic reactions.
Glucocorticoids Glucocorticoids (or, less commonly, glucocorticosteroids) are a class of corticosteroids, which are a class of steroid hormones. Glucocorticoids are corticosteroids that bind to the glucocorticoid receptor that is present in almost every vertebra ...
or
antibiotics An antibiotic is a type of antimicrobial substance active against bacteria. It is the most important type of antibacterial agent for fighting pathogenic bacteria, bacterial infections, and antibiotic medications are widely used in the therapy ...
are sometimes given to prevent inflammation and infection, respectively.


Emergence

Emergence is the return to baseline physiologic function of all organ systems after the cessation of general anaesthetics. This stage may be accompanied by temporary neurologic phenomena, such as agitated emergence (acute mental confusion),
aphasia Aphasia, also known as dysphasia, is an impairment in a person's ability to comprehend or formulate language because of dysfunction in specific brain regions. The major causes are stroke and head trauma; prevalence is hard to determine, but aph ...
(impaired production or comprehension of speech), or focal impairment in sensory or motor function.
Shivering Shivering (also called shuddering) is a bodily function in response to cold and extreme fear in warm-blooded animals. When the core body temperature drops, the shivering reflex is triggered to maintain homeostasis. Skeletal muscles begin to sha ...
is also fairly common and can be clinically significant because it causes an increase in
oxygen Oxygen is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol, symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group (periodic table), group in the periodic table, a highly reactivity (chemistry), reactive nonmetal (chemistry), non ...
consumption,
carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula . It is made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalent bond, covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is found in a gas state at room temperature and at norma ...
production,
cardiac output In cardiac physiology, cardiac output (CO), also known as heart output and often denoted by the symbols Q, \dot Q, or \dot Q_ , edited by Catherine E. Williamson, Phillip Bennett is the volumetric flow rate of the heart's pumping output: tha ...
,
heart rate Heart rate is the frequency of the cardiac cycle, heartbeat measured by the number of contractions of the heart per minute (''beats per minute'', or bpm). The heart rate varies according to the body's Human body, physical needs, including the nee ...
, and systemic blood pressure. The proposed mechanism is based on the observation that the spinal cord recovers at a faster rate than the brain. This results in uninhibited spinal reflexes manifested as
clonic Clonus is a set of involuntary and rhythmic muscular contractions and relaxations. Clonus is a sign of certain neurological conditions, particularly associated with upper motor neuron lesions involving descending motor pathways, and in many cas ...
activity (shivering). This theory is supported by the fact that doxapram, a CNS stimulant, is somewhat effective in abolishing postoperative shivering. Cardiovascular events such as increased or decreased blood pressure, rapid heart rate, or other cardiac dysrhythmias are also common during emergence from general anaesthesia, as are respiratory symptoms such as dyspnoea. Responding and following verbal command, is a criterion commonly utilized to assess the patient's readiness for tracheal extubation.


Postoperative care

Postoperative pain is managed in the anaesthesia recovery unit (PACU) with regional analgesia or oral,
transdermal Transdermal is a route of administration wherein active ingredients are delivered across the skin for systemic distribution. Examples include transdermal patches used for medicine delivery. The drug is administered in the form of a patch or ointm ...
, or
parenteral In pharmacology and toxicology, a route of administration is the way by which a drug, fluid, poison, or other substance is taken into the body. Routes of administration are generally classified by the location at which the substance is applied. ...
medication. Patients may be given
opioid Opioids are a class of Drug, drugs that derive from, or mimic, natural substances found in the Papaver somniferum, opium poppy plant. Opioids work on opioid receptors in the brain and other organs to produce a variety of morphine-like effects, ...
s, as well as other medications like non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and acetaminophen. Sometimes, opioid medication is administered by the patient themselves using a system called a patient controlled analgesic. The patient presses a button to activate a syringe device and receive a preset dose or "bolus" of the drug, usually a strong opioid such as
morphine Morphine, formerly also called morphia, is an opiate that is found naturally in opium, a dark brown resin produced by drying the latex of opium poppies (''Papaver somniferum''). It is mainly used as an analgesic (pain medication). There are ...
,
fentanyl Fentanyl is a highly potent synthetic piperidine opioid primarily used as an analgesic (pain medication). It is 30 to 50 times more Potency (pharmacology), potent than heroin and 50 to 100 times more potent than morphine. Its primary Medici ...
, or
oxycodone Oxycodone, sold under the brand name Roxicodone and OxyContin (which is the extended-release form) among others, is a semi-synthetic opioid used medically for the treatment of moderate to severe pain. It is highly addictive and is a commonly ...
(e.g., one milligram of morphine). The PCA device then "locks out" for a preset period to allow the drug to take effect, and also prevent the patient from overdosing. If the patient becomes too sleepy or sedated, they make no more requests. This confers a fail-safe aspect that is lacking in continuous-infusion techniques. If these medications cannot effectively manage the pain, local anesthetic may be directly injected to the nerve in a procedure called a nerve block. In the recovery unit, many vital signs are monitored, including
oxygen saturation Oxygen saturation (symbol SO2) is a relative measure of the concentration of oxygen that is Dissolution (chemistry), dissolved or carried in a given medium as a proportion of the maximal concentration that can be dissolved in that medium at the g ...
, heart rhythm and respiration,
blood pressure Blood pressure (BP) is the pressure of Circulatory system, circulating blood against the walls of blood vessels. Most of this pressure results from the heart pumping blood through the circulatory system. When used without qualification, the term ...
, and
core body temperature Normal human body temperature (normothermia, euthermia) is the typical temperature range found in humans. The normal human body temperature range is typically stated as . Human body temperature varies. It depends on sex, age, time of day, exert ...
. Postanesthetic shivering is common. Apart from causing discomfort and exacerbating pain, shivering has been shown to increase oxygen consumption,
catecholamine A catecholamine (; abbreviated CA), most typically a 3,4-dihydroxyphenethylamine, is a monoamine neurotransmitter, an organic compound that has a catechol (benzene with two hydroxyl side groups next to each other) and a side-chain amine. Cate ...
release, risk for hypothermia, and induce lactic acidosis. A number of techniques are used to reduce shivering, such as warm blankets, or wrapping the patient in a sheet that circulates warmed air, called a bair hugger. If the shivering cannot be managed with external warming devices, drugs such as dexmedetomidine, or other α2-agonists, anticholinergics, central nervous system stimulants, or corticosteroids may be used. In many cases, opioids used in general anaesthesia can cause postoperative
ileus Ileus is a disruption of the normal propulsive ability of the intestine. It can be caused by lack of peristalsis or by mechanical obstruction. The word 'ileus' derives . The term 'subileus' refers to a partial obstruction. Signs and symptoms S ...
, even after non-abdominal surgery. Administration of a μ-opioid
antagonist An antagonist is a character in a story who is presented as the main enemy or rival of the protagonist and is often depicted as a villain.alvimopan immediately after surgery can help accelerate the timing of hospital discharge, but does not reduce the development of paralytic ileus. Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) is a society that provides up-to-date guidelines and consensus to ensure continuity of care and improve recovery and peri-operative care. Adherence to the pathway and guidelines has been shown to associate with improved post-operative outcomes and lower costs to the health care system.


Perioperative mortality

Most perioperative mortality is attributable to complications from the operation, such as haemorrhage,
sepsis Sepsis is a potentially life-threatening condition that arises when the body's response to infection causes injury to its own tissues and organs. This initial stage of sepsis is followed by suppression of the immune system. Common signs and s ...
, and failure of vital organs. Over the last several decades, the overall anesthesia related mortality rate improved significantly for anaesthetics administered. Advancements in monitoring equipment, anaesthetic agents, and increased focus on perioperative safety are some reasons for the decrease in perioperative mortality. In the United States, the current estimated anaesthesia-related mortality is about 1.1 per million population per year. The highest death rates were found in the geriatric population, especially those 85 and older. A review from 2018 examined perioperative anaesthesia interventions and their impact on anaesthesia-related mortality. Interventions found to reduce mortality include pharmacotherapy, ventilation, transfusion, nutrition, glucose control, dialysis and medical device. Interestingly, a randomized controlled trial from 2022 demonstrated that there is no significant difference in mortality between patient receiving handover from one clinician to another compared to the control group. Mortality directly related to anaesthetic management is very uncommon but may be caused by
pulmonary aspiration Pulmonary aspiration is the entry of solid or liquid material such as pharyngeal secretions, food, drink, or stomach contents from the oropharynx or gastrointestinal tract, into the trachea and lungs. When pulmonary aspiration occurs during ea ...
of gastric contents,
asphyxia Asphyxia or asphyxiation is a condition of deficient supply of oxygen to the body which arises from abnormal breathing. Asphyxia causes generalized hypoxia, which affects all the tissues and organs, some more rapidly than others. There are m ...
tion, or
anaphylaxis Anaphylaxis (Greek: 'up' + 'guarding') is a serious, potentially fatal allergic reaction and medical emergency that is rapid in onset and requires immediate medical attention regardless of the use of emergency medication on site. It typicall ...
. These in turn may result from malfunction of anaesthesia-related equipment or, more commonly,
human error Human error is an action that has been done but that was "not intended by the actor; not desired by a set of rules or an external observer; or that led the task or system outside its acceptable limits".Senders, J.W. and Moray, N.P. (1991) Human Er ...
. In 1984, after a television programme highlighting anaesthesia mishaps aired in the United States, American anaesthesiologist Ellison C. Pierce appointed the Anesthesia Patient Safety and Risk Management Committee within the American Society of Anesthesiologists. This committee was tasked with determining and reducing the causes of anaesthesia-related
morbidity A disease is a particular abnormal condition that adversely affects the structure or function of all or part of an organism and is not immediately due to any external injury. Diseases are often known to be medical conditions that are asso ...
and mortality. An outgrowth of this committee, the Anesthesia Patient Safety Foundation, was created in 1985 as an independent, nonprofit corporation with the goal "that no patient shall be harmed by anesthesia". The rare but major complication of general anaesthesia is malignant hyperthermia. All major hospitals should have a protocol in place with an emergency drug cart near the OR for this potential complication.


See also

* Local anaesthesia


References


External links


Chloroform: ''The molecular lifesaver''
An article at University of Bristol providing interesting facts about chloroform.

* ttps://web.archive.org/web/20051219095333/http://www.rcoa.ac.uk/index.asp?PageID=69 Royal College of Anaesthetists Patient Information page {{DEFAULTSORT:General Anesthesia Anesthesia