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The sika deer (''Cervus nippon''), also known as the Northern spotted deer or the Japanese deer, is a species of deer native to much of East Asia and introduced to other parts of the world. Previously found from northern Vietnam in the south to the Russian Far East in the north, it is now uncommon except in
Japan Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
, where the species is overabundant.


Etymology

Its name comes from , the Japanese word for "deer". In Japan, the species is known as the . In Chinese, it is known as .


Taxonomy

The sika deer is a member of the genus '' Cervus'', a group of deer also known as the "true deer". Formerly, sika were grouped together in this genus with nine other species. Now, only the sika and red deer remain, the latter being divided into three separate species: European red deer, central Asian red deer, and American elk (though this remains controversial). Recent DNA evidence indicates these deer are not as closely related as previously thought, resulting in the creation of new species and genera. The genera '' Rucervus'', '' Rusa'', and ''
Przewalskium Thorold's deer (''Cervus albirostris'')Pitraa, Fickela, Meijaard, Groves (2004). ''Evolution and phylogeny of old world deer.'' Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 33: 880–895. is a threatened species of deer found in grassland, shrubland, an ...
'' are where most of the former ''Cervus'' species now belong. The ancestor of all ''Cervus'' species probably originated in central Asia and resembled sika deer. All ''Cervus'' species can crossbreed and produce
hybrid Hybrid may refer to: Science * Hybrid (biology), an offspring resulting from cross-breeding ** Hybrid grape, grape varieties produced by cross-breeding two ''Vitis'' species ** Hybridity, the property of a hybrid plant which is a union of two dif ...
s in areas where they coexist (for example, introduced sika hybridize with native red deer in the Scottish Highlands, where this is a serious threat to the gene pool of the red deer population).


Subspecies

Serious genetic pollution has occurred in many populations, especially in China, so the status of many
subspecies In biological classification, subspecies is a rank below species, used for populations that live in different areas and vary in size, shape, or other physical characteristics (morphology), but that can successfully interbreed. Not all species ...
remains unclear. The status of ''C. n. hortulorum'' is particularly uncertain and might in fact be of mixed origin, hence it is not listed here. *'' C. n. aplodontus'', northern Honshu *'' C. n. grassianus'',
Shanxi Shanxi (; ; formerly romanised as Shansi) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China and is part of the North China region. The capital and largest city of the province is Taiyuan, while its next most populated prefecture-lev ...
, China *'' C. n. keramae'', Kerama Islands of the Ryukyu Islands, Japan *'' C. n. kopschi'', southern China *'' C. n. mandarinus'', northern and northeastern China *'' C. n. mantchuricus'', northeastern China, Korea, and Russian Far East *'' C. n. nippon'', southern Honshu, Shikoku, and
Kyushu is the third-largest island of Japan's five main islands and the most southerly of the four largest islands ( i.e. excluding Okinawa). In the past, it has been known as , and . The historical regional name referred to Kyushu and its surroun ...
*'' C. n. pseudaxis'', northern Vietnam *'' C. n. pulchellus'', Tsushima Island *'' C. n. sichuanicus'', western China *'' C. n. sintikuensis'', Taiwan *'' C. n. soloensis'', Southern Philippines (anciently introduced to Jolo island; of unknown subspecies origin, probably extinct) *'' C. n. taiouanus'', Taiwan *'' C. n. yakushimae'', Yakushima, Japan *'' C. n. yesoensis'', Hokkaido, Japan


Description

The sika deer is one of the few deer species that does not lose its spots upon reaching maturity. Spot patterns vary with region. The mainland subspecies have larger and more obvious spots, in contrast to the
Taiwanese Taiwanese may refer to: * Taiwanese language, another name for Taiwanese Hokkien * Something from or related to Taiwan ( Formosa) * Taiwanese aborigines, the indigenous people of Taiwan * Han Taiwanese, the Han people of Taiwan * Taiwanese people, ...
and Japanese subspecies, whose spots are nearly invisible. Many introduced populations are from Japan, so they also lack significant spots. The color of the pelage ranges from mahogany to black, and white individuals are also known. During winter, the coat becomes darker and shaggier and the spots less prominent, and a mane forms on the back of the males' necks. They are medium-sized herbivores, though they show notable size variation across their several subspecies and considerable sexual dimorphism, with males invariably much larger than females. They can vary from tall at the shoulder and from in head-and-body length. The tail measures about long. The largest subspecies is the Manchurian sika deer (''C. n. mantchuricus''), in which males commonly weigh about and females weigh , with large stags scaling up to , although there had been records of
Yezo sika deer The Yezo sika deer (''Cervus nippon yesoensis'', ja, エゾシカ / 蝦夷鹿, yezoshika, link=no, Ainu: ユク ''yuk'') is one of the many subspecies of the sika deer. The sika that inhabit the island of Hokkaido are indigenous, although it i ...
bulls weighing up to .『エゾシカは森の幸 人・森・シカの共生』p.63 On the other end of the size spectrum, in the Japanese sika deer (''C. n. nippon''), males weigh and females weigh . All sikas are compact and dainty-legged, with short, trim, wedge-shaped heads and a boisterous disposition. When alarmed, they often display a distinctive flared
rump Rump may refer to: * Rump (animal) ** Buttocks * Rump steak, slightly different cuts of meat in Britain and America * Rump kernel, software run in userspace that offers kernel functionality in NetBSD Politics *Rump cabinet * Rump legislature * Ru ...
, much like the American
elk The elk (''Cervus canadensis''), also known as the wapiti, is one of the largest species within the deer family, Cervidae, and one of the largest terrestrial mammals in its native range of North America and Central and East Asia. The common ...
. Sika stags have stout, upright
antler Antlers are extensions of an animal's skull found in members of the Cervidae (deer) family. Antlers are a single structure composed of bone, cartilage, fibrous tissue, skin, nerves, and blood vessels. They are generally found only on male ...
s with an extra buttress up from the brow
tine Tine may refer to: *Tine (structural), a 'prong' on a fork or similar implement, or any similar structure *Tine (company), the biggest dairy producer in Norway * ''Tine'' (film), a 1964 Danish film *Tine, Iran, a village in Mazandaran Province, Ira ...
and a very thick wall. A forward-facing intermediate tine breaks the line to the top, which is usually forked. Occasionally, sika antlers develop some palmation (flat areas). Females carry a pair of distinctive black bumps on the forehead. Antlers can range from to more than , depending on the subspecies. Stags also have distinctive manes during their mating period ( rut). File:Cervus nippon Kitz Juni 2012 Wildpark Alte Fasanerie Klein-Auheim.JPG, Fawn at the
Wildpark Alte Fasanerie Wildpark may refer to: * Wildparkstadion, a sports arena in Karlsruhe, Germany * Wildpark, Derbyshire {{Disambig de:Wildpark ...
in Klein-Auheim File:Hokkaido Sika Deer.jpg, In
Shiretoko Peninsula is located on the easternmost portion of the Japanese island of Hokkaidō, protruding into the Sea of Okhotsk. It is separated from Kunashir Island, which is now occupied by Russia, by the Nemuro Strait. The name Shiretoko is derived from the ...
, Hokkaido, Japan Image:Cervus nippon antlers - Finnish Museum of Natural History - DSC04525.JPG, The skull of stag displayed in the Finnish Museum of Natural History, Helsinki, Finland File:Cervus nippon yakushimae - 20160710.webm, Sika deer standing up. File:Sika deer in Nara 05.jpg, Young male in Nara


Behavior

Sika deer can be active throughout the day, though in areas with heavy human disturbance, they tend to be
nocturnal Nocturnality is an animal behavior characterized by being active during the night and sleeping during the day. The common adjective is "nocturnal", versus diurnal meaning the opposite. Nocturnal creatures generally have highly developed sens ...
. Seasonal migration is known to occur in mountainous areas, such as Japan, with winter ranges being up to lower in elevation than summer ranges. Lifestyles vary between individuals, with some occurring alone while others are found in single-sex groups. Large herds gather in autumn and winter. Males spend most years alone occasionally forming herds together. Females with fawns only form herds during birthing season. The sika deer is a highly vocal species, with over 10 individual sounds, ranging from soft whistles to loud screams. Sika males are territorial and keep harems of females during their rut, which peaks from early September through November, but may last well into the winter. Territory size varies with habitat type and size of the buck; strong, prime bucks may hold up to . Territories are marked by a series of shallow pits or "scrapes", which is digging holes (up to 1.6 m in wide and 0.3 m in deep) with forefeet or antlers, into which the males urinate and from which emanates a strong, musky odor. Fights between rival males for territorial disputes, which occur by using hooves and antlers, are sometimes fierce and long and may even be fatal. The
gestation period In mammals, pregnancy is the period of reproduction during which a female carries one or more live offspring from implantation in the uterus through gestation. It begins when a fertilized zygote implants in the female's uterus, and ends once it ...
lasts for seven months. Hinds (does) give birth to a single fawn, weighing , which is nursed for up to ten months. The mother hides her fawn in thick undergrowth immediately after giving birth, and the fawn stays very quiet and still while it waits until the mother returns to nurse it. The fawn becomes independent 10 to 12 months after birth, and attains sexual maturity at 16 to 18 months in both sexes. The average lifespan is 15 to 18 years in captivity, although one case is recorded as living 25 years and 5 months. The sika deer may interbreed with the red deer, the closest relative; hybrid descendants may have adaptive advantages over purebred relatives. In Nara Prefecture, Japan, the deer are also known as "bowing deer", as they bow their heads before being fed special . However, deer bow heads to signal that they are about to headbutt. Therefore, when a human "bows" to a deer, the deer may take it as a challenge, and will assume the same stance before charging and attempting to headbutt the person. Deer headbutt both for play and to assert dominance, as do goats. Sika deer are found throughout the city of Nara and its many parks and temples like Tōdai-ji, as they are considered to be the messengers of the Shinto gods.


Habitat

Sika deer are found in the temperate and
subtropical The subtropical zones or subtropics are geographical zone, geographical and Köppen climate classification, climate zones to the Northern Hemisphere, north and Southern Hemisphere, south of the tropics. Geographically part of the Geographical z ...
forests of eastern Asia, preferring areas with dense understory, and where snowfall does not exceed . They tend to forage in patchy clearings of forests. Introduced populations are found in areas with similar habitats to their native ranges, including Western and Central Europe, Eastern United States, and New Zealand.


Population

Sika deer inhabit temperate and subtropical woodlands, often in areas suitable for farming and other human exploitation. Their range encompasses some of the most densely populated areas in the world, where forests were cleared hundreds of years ago. Their population status varies significantly in different countries. Although the species as a whole is thriving, it is endangered and extinct in many areas. Japan has by far the largest native sika population in the world. Though the exact population is uncertain, it is likely to be in the hundred thousand range and is still increasing, mainly due to recent conservation efforts and the extinction of its main predator, the Japanese wolf (''Canis lupus hodophilax''), over a century ago. Without its main predator, the population of sika exploded and it is now overpopulated in many areas, posing a threat to both forests and farmlands. Efforts are now being made to control its population instead of conserving it. None of its subspecies is endangered except the Kerama deer (''C. n. keramae'') on the tiny Kerama Islands. In 2015,
Japanese Ministry of the Environment The is a Cabinet of Japan, Cabinet-level ministry of the government of Japan responsible for global environmental conservation, pollution control, and nature conservation. The ministry was formed in 2001 from the sub-cabinet level Environmental ...
estimated the population at 3,080,000 in Japan, including Hokkaido. China used to have the largest population of sika, but thousands of years of hunting and habitat loss have reduced the population to less than 1,000. Of the five subspecies in China, the North China sika deer (''C. n. mandarinus'') is believed to be extinct in the wild since the 1930s; the Shanxi sika deer (''C. n. grassianus'') has not been seen in the wild since the 1980s and is also believed to be extinct in the wild. The status of Manchurian sika deer in China is unclear, though it is also believed to be extinct, and the sightings there are actually feral populations. The South China sika deer (''C. n. kopschi'') and
Sichuan sika deer The Sichuan sika deer (''Cervus nippon sichuanicus'') is one of the many subspecies of sika deer. It was discovered in 1978 and was proven to be a distinct subspecies. It is found in the mountains of northern Sichuan and southern Gansu Gansu ...
(''C. n. sichuanicus'') are the only subspecies known to remain in the wild in China. The former exists in fragmented populations of around 300 in southeast China, while the latter is found in a single population of over 400. The feral population is likely to be much higher than the wild, though most of them are descended from domesticated sikas of mixed subspecies. All of the subspecies are present in captivity, but a lack of suitable habitats and government efforts prevent their reintroduction. The Formosan sika deer (''C. n. taioanus'') has been extinct in the wild for almost two decades before individuals from zoos were introduced to
Kenting National Park Kenting National Park (), commonly known as Kenting (), is a national park located on the Hengchun Peninsula of Pingtung County, Taiwan, covering Hengchun, Checheng, and Manzhou Townships. Established on 1 January 1984, it is Taiwan's oldest a ...
; the population now numbers 200. Reintroduction programs are also under way in Vietnam, where the
Vietnamese sika deer The Vietnamese sika deer (''Cervus nippon pseudaxis'') also known as the indochinese sika deer is one of the many subspecies of the sika deer. It is one of the smaller subspecies, due to the tropical environment they live in. They were previously ...
(''C. n. pseudaxis'') is
extinct Extinction is the termination of a kind of organism or of a group of kinds (taxon), usually a species. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species, although the capacity to breed and ...
or nearly so. Russia has a relatively large and stable population of 8,500–9,000 individuals of the Manchurian subspecies, but this is limited to a small area in Primorsky Krai. Small populations might exist in North Korea, but the political situation makes investigation impossible. The species is extinct in South Korea, with no plans for reintroduction. File:Sikadeer.jpg, Outside of a store on the island of Miyajima File:Miyajima Deer Sep08.jpg, Tame deer wandering the streets of the town of Miyajima, Japan


Introduced populations

Sika deer have been introduced into a number of other countries, including Estonia,
Latvia Latvia ( or ; lv, Latvija ; ltg, Latveja; liv, Leţmō), officially the Republic of Latvia ( lv, Latvijas Republika, links=no, ltg, Latvejas Republika, links=no, liv, Leţmō Vabāmō, links=no), is a country in the Baltic region of ...
,
Lithuania Lithuania (; lt, Lietuva ), officially the Republic of Lithuania ( lt, Lietuvos Respublika, links=no ), is a country in the Baltic region of Europe. It is one of three Baltic states and lies on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea. Lithuania ...
, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, Netherlands, Norway,
Switzerland ). Swiss law does not designate a ''capital'' as such, but the federal parliament and government are installed in Bern, while other federal institutions, such as the federal courts, are in other cities (Bellinzona, Lausanne, Luzern, Neuchâtel ...
, Russia, Romania, New Zealand,
Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
, the Philippines ( Jolo Island), Poland,
Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic country located on ...
, Finland, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States ( Delaware, Kansas, Maryland,
Oklahoma Oklahoma (; Choctaw language, Choctaw: ; chr, ᎣᎧᎳᎰᎹ, ''Okalahoma'' ) is a U.S. state, state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States, bordered by Texas on the south and west, Kansas on the nor ...
, Nebraska, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Virginia, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Maine, Texas, Wyoming, Washington). In many cases, they were originally introduced as ornamental animals in parklands, but have established themselves in the wild. On
Spieden Island Spieden Island is a privately owned island in the San Juan Archipelago in the U.S. state of Washington. It has a land area of and no permanent resident population as of the 2000 census, although several structures are present on various parts of ...
in the San Juan Islands of Washington, they were introduced as a game animal. In the UK and Ireland, several distinct feral populations now exist. Some of these are in isolated areas, for example on the island of Lundy, but others are contiguous with populations of the native red deer. Since the two species sometimes
hybridize Hybridization (or hybridisation) may refer to: *Hybridization (biology), the process of combining different varieties of organisms to create a hybrid *Orbital hybridization, in chemistry, the mixing of atomic orbitals into new hybrid orbitals *Nu ...
, a serious conservation concern exists. In research which rated the negative impact of introduced mammals in Europe, the sika deer was found to be among the most damaging to the environment and economy, along with the brown rat and
muskrat The muskrat (''Ondatra zibethicus'') is a medium-sized semiaquatic rodent native to North America and an introduced species in parts of Europe, Asia, and South America. The muskrat is found in wetlands over a wide range of climates and habitat ...
. In the 1900s, King Edward VII presented a pair of sika deer to John, the second Baron Montagu of Beaulieu. This pair escaped into
Sowley Sowley Pond is a biological Site of Special Scientific Interest east of Lymington in Hampshire. It is part of Solent and Southampton Water Ramsar site and Special Protection Area. It is an important refuge for both surface feeding and diving duc ...
Wood and were the basis of the sika to be found in the New Forest today. They were so prolific, culling had to be introduced in the 1930s to control their numbers.


Hunting

Across its original range and in many areas to which it has been introduced, the sika is regarded as a particularly prized and elusive sportsman's quarry. In Britain, Ireland, and mainland Europe, sika display very different survival strategies and escape tactics from the indigenous deer. They have a marked tendency to use concealment in circumstances when red deer, for example, would flee, and have been seen to squat and lie belly-flat when danger threatens. In the British Isles, sika are widely regarded as a serious threat to new and established woodlands, and public and private forestry bodies adopt policies of rigorous year-round culling.http://www.nonnativespecies.org/downloadDocument.cfm?id=355 The main predators of sika deer include tigers, wolves,
leopard The leopard (''Panthera pardus'') is one of the five extant species in the genus '' Panthera'', a member of the cat family, Felidae. It occurs in a wide range in sub-Saharan Africa, in some parts of Western and Central Asia, Southern Russia, a ...
s, and brown bears.
Lynx A lynx is a type of wild cat. Lynx may also refer to: Astronomy * Lynx (constellation) * Lynx (Chinese astronomy) * Lynx X-ray Observatory, a NASA-funded mission concept for a next-generation X-ray space observatory Places Canada * Lynx, Ontar ...
and golden eagles target fawns.


Velvet antler

Velvet antler Velvet antler is the whole cartilaginous antler in a precalcified growth stage of the Cervidae family including the species of deer such as elk, moose, and caribou. Velvet antler is covered in a hairy, velvet-like "skin" known as velvet and its t ...
(dried immature
antler Antlers are extensions of an animal's skull found in members of the Cervidae (deer) family. Antlers are a single structure composed of bone, cartilage, fibrous tissue, skin, nerves, and blood vessels. They are generally found only on male ...
s) is a popular ingredient in traditional Chinese medicine, and sika in China were domesticated long ago for the antler trade, along with several other species. In Taiwan, both Formosan sika deer and Formosan
sambar deer The sambar (''Rusa unicolor'') is a large deer native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia that is listed as a vulnerable species on the IUCN Red List since 2008. Populations have declined substantially due to severe hunting, local ins ...
(''Cervus unicolor swinhoei'') have been farmed for velvet antlers. Japan is the only country in eastern Asia where sika deer were not farmed for velvet antlers. Other deer raised for the antler trade were
Thorold's deer Thorold's deer (''Cervus albirostris'')Pitraa, Fickela, Meijaard, Groves (2004). ''Evolution and phylogeny of old world deer.'' Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 33: 880–895. is a threatened species of deer found in grassland, shrubland, an ...
(''Cervus albirostris''), central Asian red deer (''Cervus canadensis affinis''), and American elk (''Cervus canadensis canadensis'').


Cultural significance

In Shinto, the ''Shika'' Deer is considered a kind of messenger between mortals and the '' kami''.


See also

*
Deer of Great Britain Six species of deer are living wild in Great Britain: Scottish red deer, roe deer, fallow deer, sika deer, Reeves's muntjac, and Chinese water deer. Of those, Scottish red and roe deer are native and have lived in the isles throughout the Holocene ...
*
Nara Park is a public park located in the city of Nara, Japan, at the foot of Mount Wakakusa. Established in 1880, it is one of the oldest parks in Japan. Administratively, the park is under the control of Nara Prefecture. The park is one of the "Places of ...


References

* * Igota, H., Sakagura, M., Uno, H., Kaji, K., Maneko, M., Akamatsu, R., & Maekawa (in press). "Seasonal patterns of female sika deer in eastern Hokkaidō, Japan." ''Ecological Research'', 19.


Further reading

* O'Brien, D.J., Rooney, S.M. and Hayden, T.J. (September 2009). "A differential vulnerability to hunting between the sexes in Sika-type calves". ''I. Nat. J.'' 30: 7–9. .


External links


Nara's Sika Deer, from The Official Nara Travel Guide





Sika Deer in New Zealand and their distribution.
{{Authority control nippon Mammals of East Asia Mammals of Southeast Asia Mammals of China Mammals of Japan Mammals of Korea Mammals of Russia Mammals of Taiwan Mammals of Vietnam Mammals described in 1838 Taxa named by Coenraad Jacob Temminck Articles containing video clips