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A ''ghazi'' ( ar, غازي, , plural ''ġuzāt'') is an individual who participated in ''ghazw'' (, '' ''), meaning military expeditions or raiding. The latter term was applied in early Islamic literature to expeditions led by the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and later taken up by Turkic military leaders to describe their wars of conquest. In the context of the wars between Russia and the Muslim peoples of the Caucasus, starting as early as the late 18th century's Sheikh Mansur's resistance to Russian expansion, the word usually appears in the form ''gazavat'' (). In English-language literature, the ''ghazw'' often appears as '' razzia'', a borrowing through French from Maghrebi Arabic. In modern
Turkish Turkish may refer to: *a Turkic language spoken by the Turks * of or about Turkey ** Turkish language *** Turkish alphabet ** Turkish people, a Turkic ethnic group and nation *** Turkish citizen, a citizen of Turkey *** Turkish communities and mi ...
, ''gazi'' is used to refer to veterans, and also as a title for Turkic Muslim champions such as Ertuğrul and Osman I.


Ghazw as raid—razzia

In pre-Islamic
Bedouin The Bedouin, Beduin, or Bedu (; , singular ) are nomadic Arab tribes who have historically inhabited the desert regions in the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, the Levant, and Mesopotamia. The Bedouin originated in the Syrian Desert and A ...
culture, ghazw was a form of limited warfare verging on
brigandage Brigandage is the life and practice of highway robbery and plunder. It is practiced by a brigand, a person who usually lives in a gang and lives by pillage and robbery.Oxford English Dictionary second edition, 1989. "Brigand.2" first recorded usa ...
that avoided head-on confrontations and instead emphasized raiding and looting, usually of livestock (see
cattle raiding Cattle raiding is the act of stealing cattle. In Australia, such stealing is often referred to as duffing, and the perpetrator as a duffer.Baker, Sidney John (1945) ''The Australian language : an examination of the English language and English ...
). The Umayyad-period Bedouin poet al-Kutami wrote the oft-quoted verses: "Our business is to make raids on the enemy, on our neighbor and our own brother, in the event we find none to raid but a brother." William Montgomery Watt hypothesized that Muhammad found it useful to divert this continuous internecine warfare toward his enemies, making it the basis of his war strategy; according to Watt, the celebrated
battle of Badr The Battle of Badr ( ar, غَزْوَةُ بَدِرْ ), also referred to as The Day of the Criterion (, ) in the Quran, Qur'an and by Muslims, was fought on 13 March 624 CE (17 Ramadan (calendar month), Ramadan, 2 Anno Hegirae, AH), near the ...
started as one such razzia. As a form of warfare, the '' razzia'' was then mimicked by the Christian states of Iberia in their relations with the taifa states; rough synonyms and similar tactics are the Iberian ''cavalgada'' and the Anglo-French ''
chevauchée A ''chevauchée'' (, "promenade" or "horse charge", depending on context) was a raiding method of medieval warfare for weakening the enemy, primarily by burning and pillaging enemy territory in order to reduce the productivity of a region, in add ...
''. The word '' razzia'' was used in French colonial context particularly for raids to plunder and capture slaves from among the people of Western and Central Africa, also known as ''rezzou'' when practiced by the Tuareg. The word was adopted from ''ġaziya'' of Algerian Arabic vernacular and later became a figurative name for any act of pillage, with its verb form ''razzier''.


Historical development

''Ghazi'' ( ar, غازي, ') is an Arabic word, the
active participle In linguistics, a participle () (from Latin ' a "sharing, partaking") is a nonfinite verb, nonfinite verb form that has some of the characteristics and functions of both verbs and adjectives. More narrowly, ''participle'' has been defined as "a wo ...
of the verb ''ġazā'', meaning 'to carry out a military expedition or raid'; the same verb can also mean 'to strive for' and ''Ghazi'' can thus share a similar meaning to
Mujahid ''Mujahideen'', or ''Mujahidin'' ( ar, مُجَاهِدِين, mujāhidīn), is the plural form of ''mujahid'' ( ar, مجاهد, mujāhid, strugglers or strivers or justice, right conduct, Godly rule, etc. doers of jihād), an Arabic term th ...
or "one who struggles". The verbal noun of ''ġazā'' is ''ġazw'' or ''ġazawān'', with the meaning 'raiding'. A derived
singulative In linguistics, singulative number and collective number (abbreviated and ) are terms used when the grammatical number for multiple items is the unmarked form of a noun, and the noun is specially marked to indicate a single item. This is the ...
in ''ġazwah'' refers to a single battle or raid. The term ''ghāzī'' dates to at least the Samanid period, where he appears as a mercenary and frontier fighter in
Khorasan Khorasan may refer to: * Greater Khorasan, a historical region which lies mostly in modern-day northern/northwestern Afghanistan, northeastern Iran, southern Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan * Khorasan Province, a pre-2004 province of Ira ...
and Transoxiana. Later, up to 20,000 of them took part in the Indian campaigns of
Mahmud of Ghazni Yamīn-ud-Dawla Abul-Qāṣim Maḥmūd ibn Sebüktegīn ( fa, ; 2 November 971 – 30 April 1030), usually known as Mahmud of Ghazni or Mahmud Ghaznavi ( fa, ), was the founder of the Turkic Ghaznavid dynasty, ruling from 998 to 1030. At th ...
. ''Ghāzī'' warriors depended upon plunder for their livelihood, and were prone to
brigandage Brigandage is the life and practice of highway robbery and plunder. It is practiced by a brigand, a person who usually lives in a gang and lives by pillage and robbery.Oxford English Dictionary second edition, 1989. "Brigand.2" first recorded usa ...
and
sedition Sedition is overt conduct, such as speech and organization, that tends toward rebellion against the established order. Sedition often includes subversion of a constitution and incitement of discontent toward, or insurrection against, estab ...
in times of peace. The corporations into which they organized themselves attracted adventurers, zealots and religious and political dissidents of all ethnicities. In time, though, soldiers of
Turk Turk or Turks may refer to: Communities and ethnic groups * Turkic peoples, a collection of ethnic groups who speak Turkic languages * Turkish people, or the Turks, a Turkic ethnic group and nation * Turkish citizen, a citizen of the Republic o ...
ic ethnicity predominated, mirroring the acquisition of Mamluks, Turkic slaves in the Mamluk retinues and guard corps of the caliphs and emirs and in the ranks of the ''ghazi'' corporation, some of whom would ultimately rise to military and later political dominance in various Muslim states. In the west, Turkic ''ghāzīs'' made continual incursions along the Byzantine frontier zone, finding in the akritai (
akritoi The ''Akritai'' ( el, , singular: ''Akritēs'', ) is a term used in the Byzantine Empire in the 9th–11th centuries to denote the frontier soldiers guarding the Empire's eastern border, facing the Muslim states of the Middle East. Their exploits, ...
) their Greek counterparts. After the
Battle of Manzikert The Battle of Manzikert or Malazgirt was fought between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Empire on 26 August 1071 near Manzikert, theme of Iberia (modern Malazgirt in Muş Province, Turkey). The decisive defeat of the Byzantine army and th ...
these incursions intensified, and the region's people would see the ''ghāzī'' corporations coalesce into semi- chivalric fraternities, with the white cap and the club as their emblems. The height of the organizations would come during the Mongol conquest when many of them fled from Persia and Turkistan into Anatolia. As organizations, the ''ghazi'' corporations were fluid, reflecting their popular character, and individual ''ghāzī'' warriors would jump between them depending upon the prestige and success of a particular emir, rather like the mercenary bands around western condottiere. It was from these Anatolian territories conquered during the ''ghazw'' that the Ottoman Empire emerged, and in its legendary traditions it is said that its founder, Osman I, came forward as a ''ghāzī'' thanks to the inspiration of Shaikh Ede Bali. In later periods of Islamic history the honorific title of ''ghāzī'' was assumed by those Muslim rulers who showed conspicuous success in extending the domains of Islam, and eventually the honorific became exclusive to them, much as the Roman title
imperator The Latin word ''imperator'' derives from the stem of the verb la, imperare, label=none, meaning 'to order, to command'. It was originally employed as a title roughly equivalent to ''commander'' under the Roman Republic. Later it became a part o ...
became the exclusive property of the supreme ruler of the Roman state and his family. The
Ottomans The Ottoman Turks ( tr, Osmanlı Türkleri), were the Turkic founding and sociopolitically the most dominant ethnic group of the Ottoman Empire ( 1299/1302–1922). Reliable information about the early history of Ottoman Turks remains scarce, ...
were probably the first to adopt this practice, and in any case the institution of ''ghazw'' reaches back to the beginnings of their state: : By early Ottoman times it had become a title of honor and a claim to leadership. In an inscription of 1337
Bursa ( grc-gre, Προῦσα, Proûsa, Latin: Prusa, ota, بورسه, Arabic:بورصة) is a city in northwestern Turkey and the administrative center of Bursa Province. The fourth-most populous city in Turkey and second-most populous in the ...
mosque], Orhan I, Orhan, second ruler of the Ottoman line, describes himself as "Sultan, son of the Sultan of the Gazis, Gazi son of Gazi… frontier lord of the horizons." Ottoman historian Ahmedi in his work explain the meaning of Ghazi:
A Ghazi is the instrument of the religion of Allah, a servant of God who purifies the earth from the filth of polytheism. The Ghazi is the sword of God, he is the protector and the refuge of the believers. If he becomes a martyr in the ways of God, do not believe that he has died, he lives in beatitude with Allah, he has eternal life.
The first nine Ottoman chiefs all used Ghazi as part of their full throne name (as with many other titles, the nomination was added even though it did not fit the office), and often afterwards. However, it never became a formal title within the ruler's formal style, unlike ''Sultan ul-Mujahidin'', used by Sultan Murad Khan II Khoja-Ghazi, 6th Sovereign of the House of Osman (1421–1451), styled 'Abu'l Hayrat, Sultan ul-Mujahidin, Khan of Khans, Grand Sultan of Anatolia and Rumelia, and of the Cities of Adrianople and Philippolis. Because of the political legitimacy that would accrue to those bearing this title, Muslim rulers vied amongst themselves for preeminence in the ''ghāziya'', with the Ottoman Sultans generally acknowledged as excelling all others in this feat: : For political reasons the Ottoman Sultans — also being the last dynasty of Caliphs — attached the greatest importance to safeguarding and strengthening the reputation which they enjoyed as ''ghāzīs'' in the Muslim world. When they won victories in the ''ghazā'' in the Balkans they used to send accounts of them (singular, ''feth-nāme'') as well as slaves and booty to eastern Muslim potentates. Christian knights captured by Bāyezīd I at his victory over the Crusaders at Nicopolis in 1396, and sent to Cairo, Baghdad and Tabriz were paraded through the streets, and occasioned great demonstrations in favour of the Ottomans. (''Cambridge History of Islam'', p. 290) ''Ghazi'' was also used as a title of honor in the Ottoman Empire, generally translated as the Victorious, for military officers of high rank, who distinguished themselves in the field against non-Moslem enemies; thus it was conferred on
Osman Pasha Osman Pasha (also spelled ''Uthman Pasha'' or ''Othman Pasha'') may refer to: * Özdemiroğlu Osman Pasha (1527–1585), Ottoman grand vizier * Bosniak Osman Pasha (died 1685), Ottoman governor of Egypt, Damascus, and Bosnia * Topal Osman Pasha (16 ...
after his famous defence of Plevna in Bulgaria and on Mustafa Kemal Pasha (later known as
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, or Mustafa Kemal Pasha until 1921, and Ghazi Mustafa Kemal from 1921 Surname Law (Turkey), until 1934 ( 1881 – 10 November 1938) was a Turkish Mareşal (Turkey), field marshal, Turkish National Movement, re ...
) for leading the defense against the
Gallipoli The Gallipoli peninsula (; tr, Gelibolu Yarımadası; grc, Χερσόνησος της Καλλίπολης, ) is located in the southern part of East Thrace, the European part of Turkey, with the Aegean Sea to the west and the Dardanelles ...
campaign. Some Muslim rulers (in Afghanistan) personally used the subsidiary style
Padshah-i-Ghazi Padishah ( fa, پادشاه; ; from Persian: r Old Persian: *">Old_Persian.html" ;"title="r Old Persian">r Old Persian: * 'master', and ''shāh'', 'king'), sometimes Romanization of Persian, romanised as padeshah or padshah ( fa, پادشاه; ...
.


Muhammad's Ghazwa

''Ghazwah'', which literally means "campaigns", is typically used by biographers to refer to all the Prophet's journeys from Medina, whether to make peace treaties and preach Islam to the tribes, to go on ''ʽumrah'', to pursue enemies who attacked Medina, or to engage in the nine battles. Muhammad participated in 27 Ghazwa. The first Ghazwa he participated in was the Invasion of Waddan in August 623, he ordered his followers to attack a Quraysh caravan.


Operationally

When performed within the context of Islamic warfare, the ''ghazws function was to weaken the enemy's defenses in preparation for his eventual conquest and subjugation. Because the typical ''ghazw'' raiding party often did not have the size or strength to seize military or territorial objectives, this usually meant sudden attacks on weakly defended targets (e.g. villages) with the intent of demoralizing the enemy and destroying material which could support their military forces. Though Islam's rules of warfare offered protection to non-combatants such as women,
monastics Monasticism (from Ancient Greek , , from , , 'alone'), also referred to as monachism, or monkhood, is a religious way of life in which one renounces worldly pursuits to devote oneself fully to spiritual work. Monastic life plays an important role ...
and peasants in that they could not be slain, their property could still be looted or destroyed, and they themselves could be abducted and enslaved (''Cambridge History of Islam'', p. 269): :The only way of avoiding the onslaughts of the ''ghāzīs'' was to become subjects of the Islamic state. Non-Muslims acquired the status of '' dhimmīs'', living under its protection. Most Christian sources confuse these two stages in the Ottoman conquests. The Ottomans, however, were careful to abide by these rules... Faced with the terrifying onslaught of the ''ghāzīs'', the population living outside the confines of the empire, in the ' abode of war', often renounced the ineffective protection of Christian states, and sought refuge in subjection to the Ottoman Empire. Peasants in open country in particular lost nothing by this change. :''Cambridge History of Islam'', p. 285 A good source on the conduct of the traditional ''ghazw'' raid are the medieval Islamic jurists, whose discussions as to which conduct is allowed and which is forbidden in the course of warfare reveal some of the practices of this institution. One such source is Averroes' ''Bidāyat al-Mujtahid wa-Nihāyat al-Muqtasid'' (translated in Peters, ''Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam: A Reader'', Chapter 4).


Use in the modern era

In the 19th century, Muslim fighters in North Caucasus who were resisting the Russian military operations declared a ''gazawat'' (understood as holy war) against the Russian Orthodox invasion. Although uncertain, it is believed that
Dagestan Dagestan ( ; rus, Дагеста́н, , dəɡʲɪˈstan, links=yes), officially the Republic of Dagestan (russian: Респу́блика Дагеста́н, Respúblika Dagestán, links=no), is a republic of Russia situated in the North C ...
i Islamic scholar Muhammad Yaragskii was the ideologist of this holy war. In 1825, a congress of ulema in the village of Yarag declared ''gazawat'' against the Russians. Its first leader was Ghazi Muhammad; after his death, Imam Shamil would eventually continue it. After the terrorist attacks on Paris in November 2015, the Islamic State group is said to have referred to its actions as "ghazwa". In modern Turkey, gazi is used to refer to veterans. 19 September is celebrated as Veterans Day in Turkey.


Notable examples

*
Mahmud of Ghazni Yamīn-ud-Dawla Abul-Qāṣim Maḥmūd ibn Sebüktegīn ( fa, ; 2 November 971 – 30 April 1030), usually known as Mahmud of Ghazni or Mahmud Ghaznavi ( fa, ), was the founder of the Turkic Ghaznavid dynasty, ruling from 998 to 1030. At th ...
*
Battal Ghazi Seyyid Battal Ghazi is a Turkish warrior based in Anatolia (associated primarily with Malatya, where his father, Hüseyin Gazi, was the ruler,) based on the real-life exploits of the 8th-century Umayyad military leader Abdallah al-Battal. His att ...
, 8th century, Arab military commander * Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, 16th century general and Imam of the Adal Sultanate * Belek Ghazi, Bey of the
Artuqids The Artuqid dynasty (alternatively Artukid, Ortoqid, or Ortokid; , pl. ; ; ) was a Turkoman dynasty originated from tribe that ruled in eastern Anatolia, Northern Syria and Northern Iraq in the eleventh through thirteenth centuries. The Artuqi ...
*
Gazi Gümüshtigin Gümüshtigin Gazi (died 1104), also known as Melikgazi Gümüshtigin was the second ruler of the Danishmendids which his father Danishmend Gazi had founded in central-eastern Anatolia after the Battle of Manzikert. He succeeded his father when ...
, second ruler of the Danishmendids * Danishmend Gazi 12th century, founder of the Danishmendids *
Ertuğrul Gazi Ertuğrul or Ertuğrul Gazi ( ota, ارطغرل, Erṭoġrıl; tk, ; died ) was a 13th century bey, who was the father of Osman I. Little is known about Ertuğrul's life. According to Ottoman tradition, he was the son of Suleyman Shah, the ...
(13th century), leader of the
Kayı tribe Kayı can refer to: * Kayı (tribe) The Kayı or Kayi tribe (Middle Turkic: قَيِغْ ''qayïγ'' or simply ''qayig''; tr, Kayı boyu, tk, Gaýy taýpasy) were an Oghuz Turkic people and a sub-branch of the Bozok tribal federation. In hi ...
, father of Osman I * Osman Gazi (1299–1326), founder of the Ottoman Empire * Orhan Gazi (1281–1362), second Ottoman Sultan * Ghazavat-i Sultan Murad, sixth Ottoman Sultan *
Gazi Chelebi The Gazi Chelebi ( tr, Gazi Çelebi, "Warrior Gentleman") was the nickname of a naval commander who controlled the Black Sea port of Sinop in the first decades of the 14th century. His epitaph in the Pervâne Medrese in Sinop states that he was th ...
(14th century), pirate and ruler of Sinop, Turkey * Gazi Evrenos (1288–1417), Ottoman military commander *
Sikandar Khan Ghazi Sikandar Khān Ghāzī ( fa, , bn, সিকান্দার খান গাজী) was the first wazir of Srihat under the Lakhnauti Kingdom ruled by Shamsuddin Firuz Shah. Prior to this, Khan was one of the commanders of the Battles of ...
, a military commander during the 1303
Conquest of Sylhet The Conquest of Sylhet ( bn, শ্রীহট্টের বিজয়, Srīhôtter Bijôy, Conquest of Srihatta) predominantly refers to an Islamic conquest of Srihatta (present-day Sylhet, Bangladesh) led by Sikandar Khan Ghazi, the milit ...
* Haydar Ghazi, second wazir of Sylhet who fought in the 1303
Conquest of Sylhet The Conquest of Sylhet ( bn, শ্রীহট্টের বিজয়, Srīhôtter Bijôy, Conquest of Srihatta) predominantly refers to an Islamic conquest of Srihatta (present-day Sylhet, Bangladesh) led by Sikandar Khan Ghazi, the milit ...
* Ikhtiyaruddin Ghazi Shah, 14th-century Sultan of Sonargaon * Shahzada Danyal Dulal Ghazi, Prince of Bengal who fought in the 1498 Conquest of Kamata *
Gazi-Husrev Beg Gazi Husrev-beg ( ota, غازى خسرو بك, ''Gāzī Ḫusrev Beğ''; Turkish language, Modern Turkish: ''Gazi Hüsrev Bey''; 1480–1541) was an Ottoman Empire, Ottoman Ottoman Bosnian families, Bosnian sanjak-bey (governor) of the Sanjak of ...
, an Ottoman bey of Bosnian origin (1480–1541) * Ghazi Khan, 15th century Baloch Chief from Dera Ghazi Khan, India *
Ğazı I Giray Ğazı I Giray (1504–1524, ruled 1523–24) was for six months khan of the Crimean khanate. He was preceded by his father Mehmed I Giray (r. 1515–1523) and was followed by his uncle Saadet I Girai (r. 1524–1532). He was enthroned after ...
, 16th century Crimean Tatar khan *
Gazi Osman Pasha Osman Nuri Pasha ( ota, عثمان نوری پاشا‎; 1832, Tokat, Ottoman Empire – 4 to 5 April 1900, Constantinople, Ottoman Empire), also known as Ghazi Osman Pasha ( tr, Gazi Osman Paşa), was an Ottoman field marshal. Being one ...
(1832–1897), Ottoman field marshal *
Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud Ghazi Salar Masud or Ghazi Miyan (1014 – 1034 CE) was a semi-legendary Muslim figure from India. By the 12th century, he had become reputed as a warrior, and his tomb (''dargah'') at Bahraich, Uttar Pradesh, India, had become a place of pilgrima ...
(1014–1034), Ghaznavid military commander *
Gazi Saiyyed Salar Sahu Ghazi Saiyyed Salar Sahu or Saiyed Salar Dawood or Sahu Bin Ataullah Alavi or Salar Sahu ( fa, غازى سيد سالار ساھو) was commander in the army of Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi who came to the Indian subcontinent in the early 11th century. ...
(early 11th century), Ghaznavid military commander * Ghazi Amanullah Khan, King of Afghanistan from 1919 to 1929 * Ghazi Mustafa Kemal (1881–1938), Turkish field marshal, first president of Turkey *
Nasir I of Kalat Nasir ( ar, ناصر, translit=Nāṣir) is a masculine given name, commonly found in Arabic which can mean "helper" or "one who gives victory" (grammatically the Stem I masculine singular active participle of consonantal verb root ''n-ṣ-r''). ...
, 18th-century King of Balochistan with surname ''Ghazi-e-Din'' * Abdul Rashid Ghazi


Related terms

* '' Akıncı'': (Turkish) "raider", a later replacement for ''ghāzī'' * '' al-'Awāsim'': the Syrio- Anatolian frontier area between the Byzantine and various caliphal empires * '' ribāt'': fortified convent used by a militant religious order; most commonly used in North Africa * '' thughūr'': an advanced/frontier fortress * ''uc'': Turkish term for frontier; ''uc beği'' (frontier lord) was a title assumed by early Ottoman rulers; later replaced by ''serhadd'' (frontier) * ''
Mujahideen ''Mujahideen'', or ''Mujahidin'' ( ar, مُجَاهِدِين, mujāhidīn), is the plural form of ''mujahid'' ( ar, مجاهد, mujāhid, strugglers or strivers or justice, right conduct, Godly rule, etc. doers of jihād), an Arabic term th ...
''


See also

*
Gaza Thesis The Ghaza or Ghazi thesis (from ota, غزا, ''ġazā'', "holy war," or simply "raid") is a historical paradigm first formulated by Paul Wittek which has been used to interpret the nature of the Ottoman Empire during the earliest period of it ...
*
Jihad Jihad (; ar, جهاد, jihād ) is an Arabic word which literally means "striving" or "struggling", especially with a praiseworthy aim. In an Islamic context, it can refer to almost any effort to make personal and social life conform with Go ...
( ism) *
Fedayeen Fedayeen ( ar, فِدائيّين ''fidāʼīyīn'' "self-sacrificers") is an Arabic term used to refer to various military groups willing to sacrifice themselves for a larger campaign. Etymology The term ''fedayi'' is derived from Arabic: '' ...
* Janissary * Spread of Islam * Muslim conquests *
Battle of Hamra al-Asad The Battle of Hamra al-Assad ( ar, غزوة حمراء الأسد), was a Ghazawat, a battle in which the prophet Muhammad took part. It occurred in AD 625 (AH 3) after the Battle of Uhud, when the Quraysh were returning to Mecca. In this batt ...
*
Anatolian Beyliks Anatolian beyliks ( tr, Anadolu beylikleri, Ottoman Turkish: ''Tavâif-i mülûk'', ''Beylik'' ) were small principalities (or petty kingdoms) in Anatolia governed by beys, the first of which were founded at the end of the 11th century. A secon ...


References


Further reading

* * * * , p. 74 * , p. 34 * ** Averroes, ''Bidāyat al-Mujtahid wa-Nihāyat al-Muqtasid'' * * * * * Kaziev, Shapi
Imam Shamil. "Molodaya Gvardiya" publishers. Moscow, 2001, 2003, 2006, 2010.
* Kaziev, Shapi. Akhoulgo. Caucasian War of 19th century
The historical novel. "Epoch", Publishing house. Makhachkala, 2008.
* {{cite book, editor=
Dawn Chatty Dawn Chatty, (born October 16, 1947) is an American Emerita Professor of Anthropology and Forced Migration, who specialises in the Middle East, nomadic pastoral tribes, and refugees. From 2010 to 2015, she was Professor of Anthropology and Force ...
, title=Nomadic societies in the Middle East and North Africa: entering the 21st century, year=2006, publisher=BRILL, isbn=978-90-04-14792-8, author=Mohammed Bamyeh, chapter=The Nomands of Pre-Islamic Arabia, pages=33–49 Battles of Muhammad Conversion to Islam Islamic terminology Jihad Military history of Islam Warriors