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The quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns (french: link=no, querelle des Anciens et des Modernes) began overtly as a
literary Literature is any collection of Writing, written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially prose fiction, drama, and poetry. In recent centuries, the definition has expanded to ...
and artistic debate that heated up in the early 17th century and shook the ''
Académie Française An academy (Attic Greek: Ἀκαδήμεια; Koine Greek Ἀκαδημία) is an institution of secondary education, secondary or tertiary education, tertiary higher education, higher learning (and generally also research or honorary membershi ...
''.


Origins of the debate

It was an essential feature of the European Renaissance to study the culture and institutions inherited from classical (Greek and Roman) antiquity. In contrast to the medieval scholastic emphasis on Christian theology and unchanging monarchy, Renaissance humanists launched a movement to recover, interpret, and assimilate the language, literature, learning and values of ancient Greece and Rome. The 15th century rediscovery of ancient texts and their wide distribution after the invention, in about 1440, of the printing press democratized culture, allowing a faster propagation of ideas; and the resurgence of learning based on classical sources brought revolutions in many intellectual and social scientific pursuits. For example, in the field of
architectural theory Architecture is the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with construction. It is both the process and the product of sketching, conceiving, planning, designing, and constructing buildings ...
,
Filippo Brunelleschi Filippo Brunelleschi ( , , also known as Pippo; 1377 – 15 April 1446), considered to be a founding father of Renaissance architecture, was an Italian architect, designer, and sculptor, and is now recognized to be the first modern engineer, p ...
revolutionized medieval architecture using the knowledge he rediscovered after studying the remains of ancient classical buildings, analyzing the works of 1st century writer Vitruvius, and understanding the mathematical principles that could be discerned from them. This cultural rebirth of the classical ideals of ancient times, and the following changes in scientific and artistic thought, gave rise to a reaction from those who perceived it as a danger to the stability of Christian civilization and wished to reassert the social and political values of medieval modernity. The debate became known as a "quarrel," after the frequently made pun on
Charles Perrault Charles Perrault ( , also , ; 12 January 1628 – 16 May 1703) was an iconic French author and member of the Académie Française. He laid the foundations for a new literary genre, the fairy tale, with his works derived from earlier folk tales ...
's title ''Parallèle des Anciens et des Modernes'' (''Parallel between Ancients and Moderns,'' 1688–92); the word ''querelle'' being used in the place of ''parallèle''.


Debate in France

The quarrel between the Classics and the Moderns opposes two distinct currents: The Ancients (''Anciens''), led by Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux, say that literary creation has its roots in the fair appreciation of the heritage of
antiquity Antiquity or Antiquities may refer to: Historical objects or periods Artifacts *Antiquities, objects or artifacts surviving from ancient cultures Eras Any period before the European Middle Ages (5th to 15th centuries) but still within the histo ...
. According to them, it's the test of time that makes the masterpieces, not the pedantic opinion of an elite of scholars; the worth of the famous authors from Greece and Rome is established by twenty centuries of universal admiration. While recognizing the merits of the great writers of his time (Boileau predicted that
Pierre Corneille Pierre Corneille (; 6 June 1606 – 1 October 1684) was a French tragedian. He is generally considered one of the three great seventeenth-century French dramatists, along with Molière and Racine. As a young man, he earned the valuable patronag ...
, Jean Racine and Molière would be acclaimed as geniuses in centuries to come) it is also important to recognize the cumulative dimension of culture and study our predecessors. The metaphor of the dwarves standing on the shoulders of giants illustrates this principle: by learning from the works of the great men of the past, it's possible to surpass them. Boileau has on his side the greatest French writers of his time, including Racine,
Jean de La Fontaine Jean de La Fontaine (, , ; 8 July 162113 April 1695) was a French fabulist and one of the most widely read French poets of the 17th century. He is known above all for his ''Fables'', which provided a model for subsequent fabulists across Euro ...
,
François Fénelon François de Salignac de la Mothe-Fénelon (), more commonly known as François Fénelon (6 August 1651 – 7 January 1715), was a French Catholic archbishop, theologian, poet and writer. Today, he is remembered mostly as the author of '' Th ...
and
Jean de La Bruyère Jean de La Bruyère (, , ; 16 August 1645 – 11 May 1696) was a French philosopher and moralist, who was noted for his satire. Early years Jean de La Bruyère was born in Paris, in today's Essonne ''département'', in 1645. His family was mid ...
. The Moderns (''Modernes''), represented by Perrault, maintain that, since the France of King Louis XIV surpasses all other states in history by its political and religious perfection, accomplished and matchless, it follows that the works created by 17th century authors to the glory of King and Church are necessarily superior to anything produced in the past centuries. Therefore they fight for a new literature adapted to the modern era, complacent towards the Court of France, respectful of 17th century decorum, zealous for Catholic religion, renouncing the freedom of old classical authors and always seeking to celebrate the French monarchy and the Catholic Church. Perrault has on his side the ''Académie'', the devout party, the literary salons and a host of fashionable poets—who, in the present-day, are almost completely forgotten. The gradual takeover of the literary community by political powers during the 17th century—which included the creation of the ''Académie'' by
Cardinal Richelieu Armand Jean du Plessis, Duke of Richelieu (; 9 September 1585 – 4 December 1642), known as Cardinal Richelieu, was a French clergyman and statesman. He was also known as ''l'Éminence rouge'', or "the Red Eminence", a term derived from the ...
(with Richelieu acting as supreme judge of all things literary), governmental censorship, the banning of controversial books (which sometimes also carried legal penalties against their authors), and the giving of pensions to authors who flattered the government—greatly favored Perrault, who had risen to prominence through the power and patronage of minister
Jean-Baptiste Colbert Jean-Baptiste Colbert (; 29 August 1619 – 6 September 1683) was a French statesman who served as First Minister of State from 1661 until his death in 1683 under the rule of King Louis XIV. His lasting impact on the organization of the countr ...
, and bolstered his Modern party's views on artistic creation. From 1637 to 1694, the proponents of a literature adapted to modern times raged against the "Ancients". In 1637, Corneille's '' Le Cid'' was attacked in the salons and condemned by the ''Académie''; accused of anti-patriotism and affronting decorum and morality. The "Moderns" mobilized again in a 1663 attack against Molière's '' L'École des femmes'', as well as in 1667 against Racine's '' Andromaque'', and then in 1677 against Racine's '' Phèdre''; all were called irreligious and outrageous to French customs and society. In 1674,
Desmarets de Saint-Sorlin Jean Desmarets, Sieur de Saint-Sorlin (1595 – 28 October 1676) was a French writer and dramatist. He was a founding member, and the first to occupy seat 4 of the Académie française in 1634. Biography Born in Paris, Desmarets was introduced ...
made a public call on his friend Perrault to "defend France" against "that heretical troop who prefers ancient works to our own." In response to this call, Perrault and his brother
Claude Claude may refer to: __NOTOC__ People and fictional characters * Claude (given name), a list of people and fictional characters * Claude (surname), a list of people * Claude Lorrain (c. 1600–1682), French landscape painter, draughtsman and etcher ...
tried to charge Boileau with the crimes of
blasphemy Blasphemy is a speech crime and religious crime usually defined as an utterance that shows contempt, disrespects or insults a deity, an object considered sacred or something considered inviolable. Some religions regard blasphemy as a religiou ...
and '' lèse-majesté'' on the grounds that he preferred the works of ancient pagan authors who wrote under a regime of liberty (in
Classical Athens The city of Athens ( grc, Ἀθῆναι, ''Athênai'' .tʰɛ̂ː.nai̯ Modern Greek: Αθήναι, ''Athine'' or, more commonly and in singular, Αθήνα, ''Athina'' .'θi.na during the classical period of ancient Greece (480–323 BC) wa ...
or the
Ancient Roman Republic The Roman Republic ( la, Res publica Romana ) was a form of government of Rome and the era of the classical Roman civilization when it was run through public representation of the Roman people. Beginning with the overthrow of the Roman King ...
) to the works of modern, Catholic authors who submitted to the absolute monarchy of Louis XIV. One of the key episodes in the quarrel's development was the so-called Quarrel of the Inscriptions (''french: querelle des inscriptions''), which was triggered by Colbert's plan for a triumphal arch, glorifying Louis XIV's victories, to be erected on the ground that would later become the '' Place de la Nation'' in Paris (this construction project ended up being abandoned in around 1680 and the unfinished structures were demolished shortly after Louis XIV's death). The question was whether the inscriptions glorifying the King on the projected arch should be in Latin ("ancient") or French ("modern").
Antiquarian An antiquarian or antiquary () is an fan (person), aficionado or student of antiquities or things of the past. More specifically, the term is used for those who study history with particular attention to ancient artifact (archaeology), artifac ...
François Charpentier argued in favor of French inscriptions, and was countered by
Jesuit , image = Ihs-logo.svg , image_size = 175px , caption = ChristogramOfficial seal of the Jesuits , abbreviation = SJ , nickname = Jesuits , formation = , founders ...
Jean Lucas of the
College de Clermont A college (Latin: ''collegium'') is an educational institution or a constituent part of one. A college may be a degree-awarding tertiary educational institution, a part of a collegiate or federal university, an institution offering v ...
, who defended the option of Latin, in an eloquent address, pronounced at the College on and which was published in 1677 under the title '. The actual episode that took the name of ''La Querelle'' happened a decade later and lasted from 1687 to 1694, starting with the reading in the of Perrault's ''Le siècle de Louis le Grand'' (''The Century of Louis the Great''), in which he supported the merits of the authors of the century of Louis XIV and expressed the Moderns' stance in a nutshell: ::''La docte antiquité dans toute sa durée'' ::''A l'égal de nos jours ne fut point éclairée.''
::''Learned
antiquity Antiquity or Antiquities may refer to: Historical objects or periods Artifacts *Antiquities, objects or artifacts surviving from ancient cultures Eras Any period before the European Middle Ages (5th to 15th centuries) but still within the histo ...
, through all its extent,'' ::''Was never
enlightened Enlightened may refer to: * ''Enlightened'' (TV series), an American comedy-drama * ''Enlightened'' (album), 2007, by Dynamic Duo * The Enlightened, a faction in ''Ingress'' (video game) See also * Enlightened self-interest, a philosophy in et ...
to equal our times.'' The poem particularly attacks Homer, and other classical poets, whom Perrault considers overrated and mediocre. Upon hearing this, Boileau stood up and left in anger, saying he was ashamed that a countryman of his could have spoken like that. Between 1688 and 1692, Perrault wrote the four volumes of ''Parallèle des Anciens et des Modernes'' (''Parallel between Ancients and Moderns'') where he attempted to prove his ideas on literature. Boileau countered with satirical
epigram An epigram is a brief, interesting, memorable, and sometimes surprising or satirical statement. The word is derived from the Greek "inscription" from "to write on, to inscribe", and the literary device has been employed for over two mille ...
s mocking Perrault's errors and, more seriously, his critical reflections on
Longinus Longinus () is the name given to the unnamed Roman soldier who pierced the side of Jesus with a lance and who in medieval and some modern Christian traditions is described as a convert to Christianity. His name first appeared in the apocryphal G ...
. In 1694, after a mediation by Antoine Arnauld, the two officially reconciled, but the prolonged and heated polemic left Perrault embittered and resentful. He threatened, in the following years, to write new pamphlets against Boileau, to which Boileau replied that he was "done with Perrault" and that whatever Perrault did was "completely indifferent to him." Racine showed himself one of the Ancients by focusing his choice of subjects on those drawn from the literature of antiquity. He also delimited his tragedies by the classical unities, derived by the classicists from
Aristotle's Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of phil ...
''
Poetics Poetics is the theory of structure, form, and discourse within literature, and, in particular, within poetry. History The term ''poetics'' derives from the Ancient Greek ποιητικός ''poietikos'' "pertaining to poetry"; also "creative" an ...
''; the unities of place, time, and action (one scene location, 24 hours, and consistent actions, respectively). In the opening years of the 18th century, Pierre de Marivaux was to show himself a Modern by establishing a new genre of theatre—unknown to the Ancients—the sentimental comedy (''
comédie larmoyante Comédie larmoyante () was a genre of French drama of the 18th century. In this type of sentimental comedy, the impending tragedy was resolved at the end, amid reconciliations and floods of tears. Plays of this genre that ended unhappily never ...
''). In it, the impending tragedy was resolved by the end, amid reconciliations and floods of tears.


Assessment

In the end, the Quarrel of the Ancients and Moderns was a cover, often a witty one, for opposing views of much deeper significance. One side was attached to the classic ideals of Greece and Rome and rejected a theory of art that turned literature into propaganda for the ruling powers, while the other contested the very idea of intellectual or aesthetic values above the authority of the King and the Church. The renewal of interest in antiquity during the Age of Enlightenment led to a reassessment of the achievements of the classical past, and ended up subjecting the scriptures themselves to the scrutiny of critical thinkers. The attack on authority in politics and religion had analogues in the rise of scientific inquiry, and a challenge to royal and ecclesiastical authority in the literary field, already announced the questioning of state and society at the time of the French Revolution, when absolute monarchy and state-sanctioned religion—the emblems of modernity—would be overthrown in the name of the ancient ideas of
republic A republic () is a "state in which power rests with the people or their representatives; specifically a state without a monarchy" and also a "government, or system of government, of such a state." Previously, especially in the 17th and 18th c ...
, democracy, and freedom of religion.


Analogous 16th–20th-century debates

The Renaissance humanistic revolution, and its rediscovery of the intellectual achievements from classical (Greek and Roman) antiquity, brought about a divergence with medieval scholasticism and set the framework for the Scientific Revolution to come. Much as the Humanists had been preoccupied with uncovering the original meaning of language, literature and culture, so too had the natural philosophers of a century later. René Descartes (1596 – 1650) and Francis Bacon (1561 - 1626) set the tone of a return to nature in that they wanted to restart the entire project of science and humanities by determining laws based off on examination of reality rather than scripture. Their questioning would lead Descartes down a path of rationalism and Bacon down a path of
empiricism In philosophy, empiricism is an epistemological theory that holds that knowledge or justification comes only or primarily from sensory experience. It is one of several views within epistemology, along with rationalism and skepticism. Empir ...
. This calling of the natural philosophers (later to be named scientists) of a return to classical research methods based on observation, experience and rational theorization would allow for a great shift in European scientific thought. Since the Early Middle Ages (sometimes referred to as the Dark Ages), Aristotle had been the backbone of the metanarrative of the system of Western academic knowledge officially endorsed by the Catholic Church. All philosophical discourse regarding nature (as well as its metanarrative) was held within the parameters of Catholic-approved Aristotelianism as set by Thomas Aquinas and other Doctors of the Church, which sought to harmoniously unite the totalizing aspect of God with a human understanding of nature that didn't contradict Church doctrine and was assumed to be perfect and complete. Aristotle's theories on the natural order were further substantiated by Ptolemy's geography and astronomy. This Aristotelian-
Ptolemaic Ptolemaic is the adjective formed from the name Ptolemy, and may refer to: Pertaining to the Ptolemaic dynasty * Ptolemaic dynasty, the Macedonian Greek dynasty that ruled Egypt founded in 305 BC by Ptolemy I Soter * Ptolemaic Kingdom Pertaining ...
paradigm of scientific knowledge, particularly physics and astronomy, lasted unchallenged until the transformations in Western thought brought by the Renaissance, at which point the 16th and 17th centuries saw the union of a Copernican-
Cartesian Cartesian means of or relating to the French philosopher René Descartes—from his Latinized name ''Cartesius''. It may refer to: Mathematics *Cartesian closed category, a closed category in category theory *Cartesian coordinate system, modern ...
system of physics and astronomy open up a hefty first critique which was then completed by the union of the
Galilean Generically, a Galilean (; he, גלילי; grc, Γαλιλαίων; la, Galilaeos) is an inhabitant of Galilee, a region of Israel surrounding the Sea of Galilee (Kinneret). The New Testament notes that the Apostle Peter's accent gave him a ...
- Newtonian system of nature. The same transformation occurred in other fields of scientific knowledge, such as the medical theories of Galen and
Avicenna Ibn Sina ( fa, ابن سینا; 980 – June 1037 CE), commonly known in the West as Avicenna (), was a Persian polymath who is regarded as one of the most significant physicians, astronomers, philosophers, and writers of the Islamic G ...
becoming—under the authority of the Church—the mainstay of the medieval physician's university curriculum from the 11th century onwards, and the work of Renaissance men like Janus Cornarius and Michael Servetus, who questioned and challenged the established order, bringing about the fierce reaction of the defenders of medieval modernity (who burned Servetus's books in bonfires and had Cornarius' complete oeuvre put on the
Index Librorum Prohibitorum The ''Index Librorum Prohibitorum'' ("List of Prohibited Books") was a list of publications deemed heretical or contrary to morality by the Sacred Congregation of the Index (a former Dicastery of the Roman Curia), and Catholics were forbidden ...
, an index of texts prohibited by the Catholic Church. This debate in natural philosophy played a part in the Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns. In 17th century France, the leaders of the Moderns, like Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet, were for medieval scholasticism, while the Ancients party supported the new discoveries. Thus, Boileau, Racine, and François Bernier brilliantly defended, in an ''Arrêt Burlesque'' (a work of literary satire), the rebirth (in French: ''renaissance'') of philosophy and science, and ridiculed all those who feared changes in the status quo of modernity. According to
Claude Brossette Claude Brossette, seigneur de Varennes d'Appetour (7 November 1671, Theizé, Lyonnais - 1743) was a French lawyer and writer. He was educated at the ''Collège de la Trinité'' in Lyon and joined the Jesuits before turning to law. In 1700 he fo ...
, this ''Arrêt'' destroyed a project of the University of Paris to ban Cartesianism. Boileau also wrote in defense of new forms of medical treatment, like the use of quinine, challenging the Moderns who were for
Galenism Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus ( el, Κλαύδιος Γαληνός; September 129 – c. AD 216), often Anglicized as Galen () or Galen of Pergamon, was a Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire. Considered to be one ...
and rejected any new developments. Isaac Newton took the side of the Ancients, against
Robert Hooke Robert Hooke FRS (; 18 July 16353 March 1703) was an English polymath active as a scientist, natural philosopher and architect, who is credited to be one of two scientists to discover microorganisms in 1665 using a compound microscope that ...
, when he wrote that his work relied heavily upon the work of his predecessors, famously stating: ::"If I have seen further it is by
standing on the shoulders of Giants The phrase "standing on the shoulders of giants" is a metaphor which means "using the understanding gained by major thinkers who have gone before in order to make intellectual progress". It is a metaphor of dwarfs standing on the shoulders o ...
." Hooke, a partisan of the Moderns, claimed that microscopy had reached perfection in modern times and that it was impossible to do better, to which Newton replied predicting that the future would bring new instruments capable of magnifying four thousand times more powerfully, eventually making even the atom visible.
Maria Popova Maria Popova ( bg, Мария Попова; born 28 July 1984) is a Bulgarian-born, American-based essayist, book author, poet, and writer of literary and arts commentary and cultural criticism that has found wide appeal both for her writing and ...
has commented that "Newton’s humility sprang from an early and formative understanding of how knowledge builds upon itself, incrementally improving upon existing ideas until the cumulative adds up to the revolutionary."
Sir William Temple Sir William Temple, 1st Baronet (25 April 162827 January 1699) was an English diplomat, statesman and essayist. An important diplomat, he was recalled in 1679, and for a brief period was a leading advisor to Charles II, with whom he then fell ...
argued against the Modern position in his essay ''On Ancient and Modern Learning''; therein he repeated the
commonplace Commonplace may refer to: *Commonplace book *Literary topos In classical Greek rhetoric, topos, ''pl.'' topoi, (from grc, τόπος "place", elliptical for grc, τόπος κοινός ''tópos koinós'', 'common place'), in Latin ''locus'' ( ...
, originally from
Bernard of Chartres Bernard of Chartres ( la, Bernardus Carnotensis; died after 1124) was a twelfth-century French Neo-Platonist philosopher, scholar, and administrator. Life The date and place of his birth are unknown. He was believed to have been the elder broth ...
, that we see more only because we are "dwarves standing on the shoulders of giants." Temple's essay prompted a small flurry of responses. Among others, two men who took the side opposing Temple were classicist and editor
Richard Bentley Richard Bentley FRS (; 27 January 1662 – 14 July 1742) was an English classical scholar, critic, and theologian. Considered the "founder of historical philology", Bentley is widely credited with establishing the English school of Hellen ...
and critic William Wotton. The entire discussion in England was over by 1696, but it was revisited by Jonathan Swift, who saw in the opposing camps of Ancients and Moderns a shorthand of two general orientations or ways of life. He articulated his discussion most notably in his satire '' A Tale of a Tub'', composed between 1694 and 1697, and published in 1704 with the famous prolegomenon '' The Battle of the Books'', long after the initial salvoes were over in France. Swift's polarizing satire provided a framework for other satirists in his circle of the Scriblerians. Two other distinguished 18th century philosophers who wrote at length concerning the distinction between Moderns and Ancients were Giambattista Vico (cf. e.g. his ''
De nostri temporis studiorum ratione ''De nostri temporis studiorum ratione'' is an oration by Gianbattista Vico first published in 1708. The work's title is usually rendered in English as "On the Study Method of Our Times." Alternatively, scholars refer to the work as the ''De Rati ...
'') and
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (, ; 22 January 1729 – 15 February 1781) was a philosopher, dramatist, publicist and art critic, and a representative of the Enlightenment era. His plays and theoretical writings substantially influenced the developmen ...
(for whom, the Moderns see "more," but the Ancients see "better"). In 19th century England, highlighting the distinction between Hellenism ("Athens"/reason or "sweetness and light") and Hebraism ("Jerusalem"/faith), Matthew Arnold defended the Ancients (most notably Plato and Aristotle) against the dominant progressive intellectual trends of his times. Arnold drew attention to the fact that the great divide between Ancients and Modernists pertained to the understanding of the relation between liberty/reason and authority. Arnold saw Thomas Carlyle as the great spokesman of Hebraism and duty in an age which needed Hellenism and culture. Countering the thrust of much of 20th century intellectual history and literary criticism,
Leo Strauss Leo Strauss (, ; September 20, 1899 – October 18, 1973) was a German-American political philosopher who specialized in classical political philosophy. Born in Germany to Jewish parents, Strauss later emigrated from Germany to the United States. ...
has contended that the debate between Ancients and Moderns (or the defenders of either camp) is ill-understood when reduced to questions of progress or regress. Strauss himself revived the old ''querelle'', siding with the Ancients (against the Modernist position advocated, e.g., by Strauss's friend Alexandre Kojève).
Leo Strauss, the Straussians, and the American Regime
' by Kenneth Deutch (1999).


See also

* Classicism **
Neoclassicism Neoclassicism (also spelled Neo-classicism) was a Western cultural movement in the decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that drew inspiration from the art and culture of classical antiquity. Neoclassicism was ...
*
Learned medicine Learned medicine is the European medical tradition in the Early Modern period, when it experienced the tension between the texts derived from ancient Greek medicine, particularly by followers of the teachings attributed to Hippocrates and those of ...
* Poussinists and Rubenists * The Two Cultures


Notes


References

* Matthew Arnold, ''Culture and Anarchy and other writings'' Ed. Stefan Collini. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. * David A. Boruchoff, "The Three Greatest Inventions of Modern Times: An Idea and Its Public." In: ''Entangled Knowledge: Scientific Discourses and Cultural Difference.'' Ed. Klaus Hock and Gesa Mackenthun. Münster and New York: Waxmann, 2012, pp. 133–63. . * Joseph Cropsey (ed.), ''Ancients and Moderns: Essays on the Tradition of Political Philosophy in Honor of Leo Strauss'', New York, Basic Books, 1964 . * Joan DeJean, ''Ancients against Moderns: Culture Wars and the Making of a Fin de Siècle'', Chicago: University Of Chicago Press, 1997, . * Joseph M. Levine, ''The Battle of the Books: History and Literature in the Augustan Age'', Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991. * Jean-Jacques Rousseau, ''Politics and the Arts: Letter to M. D'Alembert on the Theatre'', translated and with an introduction by Allan Bloom. Cornell: Cornell University Press, 1960. * Levent Yılmaz, ''Le temps moderne: Variations sur les Anciens et les contemporains'', Paris: Editions Gallimard, 2004.


External links


''Dictionary of the History of Ideas''
Ancients and Moderns in the Eighteenth Century {{DEFAULTSORT:Quarrel Of The Ancients And The Moderns 1690s in France History of academia Controversies in France Literature controversies 17th-century French literature