Economy of Hispania
   HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

The economy of Hispania, or
Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lette ...
Iberia The Iberian Peninsula (), ** * Aragonese and Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica'' ** ** * french: Péninsule Ibérique * mwl, Península Eibérica * eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in southwestern Europe, defi ...
, experienced a strong revolution during and after the conquest of the peninsular territory by Rome, in such a way that, from an unknown but promising land, it came to be one of the most valuable acquisitions of both the Republic and Empire and a basic pillar that sustained the rise of Rome.


The Pre-Roman economy

Before the entrance of Rome into Iberia, almost all of the peninsula was based on a rural
subsistence economy A subsistence economy is an economy directed to basic subsistence (the provision of food, clothing, shelter) rather than to the market. Henceforth, "subsistence" is understood as supporting oneself at a minimum level. Often, the subsistence econo ...
with little or very limited trade, with the exception of the largest cities, located mainly on the
Mediterranean The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western Europe, Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa ...
coast, which had regular contact with
Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
and Phoenician commerce.


The economic strategy of the Roman conquest

Phoenician legends had traditionally circulated throughout the Mediterranean about the infinite riches of the
Tartessos Tartessos ( es, Tarteso) is, as defined by archaeological discoveries, a historical civilization settled in the region of Southern Spain characterized by its mixture of local Paleohispanic and Phoenician traits. It had a proper writing system ...
and how commercial expeditions returned from the coast of
Hispania Hispania ( la, Hispānia , ; nearly identically pronounced in Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, and Italian) was the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula and its provinces. Under the Roman Republic, Hispania was divided into two provinces: Hisp ...
loaded with cargoes of
silver Silver is a chemical element with the symbol Ag (from the Latin ', derived from the Proto-Indo-European ''h₂erǵ'': "shiny" or "white") and atomic number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical ...
. Undoubtedly, these stories contributed to the increase in interest of the Mediterranean powers in the Iberian peninsula. After their defeat in the First Punic War,
Carthage Carthage was the capital city of Ancient Carthage, on the eastern side of the Lake of Tunis in what is now Tunisia. Carthage was one of the most important trading hubs of the Ancient Mediterranean and one of the most affluent cities of the cla ...
was overwhelmed by the loss of important markets and by the tribute it had to pay Rome as compensation for the war. With the goal of alleviating this situation, the Carthagenians decided to expand along the coast of Iberia, which had until then been outside the area of Roman influence. Carthage, interested above all in getting quick profit, exploited the silver mines along the coastline of
Andalusia Andalusia (, ; es, Andalucía ) is the southernmost autonomous community in Peninsular Spain. It is the most populous and the second-largest autonomous community in the country. It is officially recognised as a "historical nationality". The t ...
and Levante, extracting large amounts of this metal with which it financed a great part of the Second Punic War and Hannibal's Italian campaign. With this purpose and others, one of the first strategic objectives of Rome when invading the peninsula was to take the mines near New Carthage. In part due to the loss of these resources, and in greater part due to the isolation he found himself in, Hannibal had to renounce the war in Italy in 206 BC. After the expulsion of Carthage, part of the indigenous peoples of Hispania were forced to pay
tribute A tribute (; from Latin ''tributum'', "contribution") is wealth, often in kind, that a party gives to another as a sign of submission, allegiance or respect. Various ancient states exacted tribute from the rulers of land which the state conqu ...
to Rome through an intricate web of alliances and allegiances. Despite this, throughout the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, Rome took the unconquered lands of Hispania as an opportunity to pillage and plunder, frequently breaking peace treaties, like the accords from the times of Graccus Sempronius, which had allowed long periods of peace. The uprising of the Celtiberian and Lusitanian peoples only served to increase revenues from Rome via the immense spoils of war from the campaigns of
Cato the Elder Marcus Porcius Cato (; 234–149 BC), also known as Cato the Censor ( la, Censorius), the Elder and the Wise, was a Roman soldier, senator, and historian known for his conservatism and opposition to Hellenization. He was the first to write his ...
. This policy of obtaining riches by force had its continuation in the campaigns of Pompey and later Julius Caesar, whom the histories say undertook not only to fight Pompey, but to profit from the conquest in order pay his creditors. Meanwhile, the Spanish Mediterranean coast, which had been conquered during the war against Carthage and rapidly Romanized, began its economic and commercial expansion that would soon make it famous in the Roman world.


The economy of Romanized Hispania

Besides the exploitation of mineral resources, Rome obtained with the conquest of Hispania access to what were probably the best agricultural lands in all of Romanized territory. Therefore, it became necessary to use those lands as soon as possible. During the Roman domination of the area, the economy of Hispania experienced a major production expansion, fueled further by roads and
trade route A trade route is a logistical network identified as a series of pathways and stoppages used for the commercial transport of cargo. The term can also be used to refer to trade over bodies of water. Allowing goods to reach distant markets, a sing ...
s that opened the markets of the rest of the Empire.


Circulating currency

One of most obvious symbols of civilization that foreign cultures brought to Hispania was the minting of
coins A coin is a small, flat (usually depending on the country or value), round piece of metal or plastic used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. They are standardized in weight, and produced in large quantities at a mint in order t ...
to facilitate commercial transactions. Beforehand, the peninsular economy was based on the barter system, exchanging products rather than currency, but beginning in the 3rd century BC, Greek colonies like Ampurias began minting coins, but with no influence beyond its boundaries. Later, Carthage would introduce a more general use of the coins as payment for its troops, before and during the Roman invasion; but it would be the Romans who would impose the use of currency throughout the Spanish territory, and not just that currency whose value was based on the metal contained in the coin, but others of lower value than the
alloy An alloy is a mixture of chemical elements of which at least one is a metal. Unlike chemical compounds with metallic bases, an alloy will retain all the properties of a metal in the resulting material, such as electrical conductivity, ductilit ...
that comprised them, and were endorsed by the Roman
treasury A treasury is either *A government department related to finance and taxation, a finance ministry. *A place or location where treasure, such as currency or precious items are kept. These can be state or royal property, church treasure or i ...
. From the abundance of coins found, especially those of lower value, one can draw the conclusion that the money was used widely in everyday life. During expansion of Rome in Spain, many peoples of the Peninsula minted their own coins in order to facilitate payment of tribute and trade with the area under Roman rule. Throughout the
Republican Republican can refer to: Political ideology * An advocate of a republic, a type of government that is not a monarchy or dictatorship, and is usually associated with the rule of law. ** Republicanism, the ideology in support of republics or agains ...
period, it was the
Roman Senate The Roman Senate ( la, Senātus Rōmānus) was a governing and advisory assembly in ancient Rome. It was one of the most enduring institutions in Roman history, being established in the first days of the city of Rome (traditionally founded in ...
that completely controlled the issuance of coinage through the monetary courts, but later, with the rise of the dictators, its control was reduced to lower valued coins, later passing many of the mints to imperial control. Once Roman power in Hispania was consolidated, there were many mints that coined money, such as Tarraco (the first of the Roman mints in Hispania), Italica, Barcino, Caesaraugusta, Emerita Augusta, etc. And throughout the Empire, more than 400 mints provided coinage to most of Europe, North Africa and the Middle East.


Minerals

Undoubtedly, the first interest of Rome in Iberia was to take advantage of its legendary mineral wealth, besides that taken from Carthage. After the Second Punic War, the administration of was entrusted to Publius Scipio 'Africanus', who paid special attention to the mines. Rome would continue the extraction practices that the Iberian peoples began and that the Carthaginians would improve by importing the techniques used in Ptolemaic Egypt. Since the mines were state owned, Rome created companies, 'public societies', which were public businesses administrated by
publican In antiquity, publicans ( Greek τελώνης ''telōnēs'' (singular); Latin ''publicanus'' (singular); ''publicani'' (plural)) were public contractors, in whose official capacity they often supplied the Roman legions and military, managed th ...
s for mining. These publicans, generally members of the equestrian order, enriched themselves rapidly and abundantly, but Sulla snatched the mines from the publicans during his dictatorship in the 80s and 70s BC, putting them in the hands of private individuals and obtaining with it great economic and political benefits. In the times of Strabo (1st century BC - 1st century AD, during the transition from the Republic to the dictators and the Empire), they were granted as concessions to private exploitation. This system permitted the rapid enriching of certain families who, coming from Italy, had settled in
Hispania Hispania ( la, Hispānia , ; nearly identically pronounced in Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, and Italian) was the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula and its provinces. Under the Roman Republic, Hispania was divided into two provinces: Hisp ...
for this purpose. In other cases, the mines could belong to a city (generally to a colony). The profits from the mines were huge and remained so throughout the period of seven centuries of Roman rule, which converted Hispania into an economic mainstay of the Empire. The records show with sufficient accuracy mine production figures, that in the 2nd century BC were more than nine million
denarii The denarius (, dēnāriī ) was the standard Roman silver coin from its introduction in the Second Punic War to the reign of Gordian III (AD 238–244), when it was gradually replaced by the antoninianus. It continued to be minted in very ...
annually, while the spoils of war during the same period, were never more than a little more than a third of this amount. With regards to minerals, Rome extracted with greater interest
silver Silver is a chemical element with the symbol Ag (from the Latin ', derived from the Proto-Indo-European ''h₂erǵ'': "shiny" or "white") and atomic number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical ...
,
copper Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from la, cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkis ...
, and
iron Iron () is a chemical element with Symbol (chemistry), symbol Fe (from la, Wikt:ferrum, ferrum) and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 element, group 8 of the periodic table. It is, Abundanc ...
. Hannibal had given a great vitality to the silver mines of New Carthage. In those on the outskirts of Cartagena and Mazarron, Rome continued extracting silver,
lead Lead is a chemical element with the symbol Pb (from the Latin ) and atomic number 82. It is a heavy metal that is denser than most common materials. Lead is soft and malleable, and also has a relatively low melting point. When freshly cu ...
, iron,
zinc Zinc is a chemical element with the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. Zinc is a slightly brittle metal at room temperature and has a shiny-greyish appearance when oxidation is removed. It is the first element in group 12 (IIB) of the periodi ...
, and other minerals in great quantities, making about 40,000 slaves labor in them. Even today in the region of Ilipa (the same place where Scipio inflicted a major defeat on the Carthaginians on the west bank of the river Betis) there are significant mineral deposits such as Almaden de la Plata or Aznalcollar in Sevilla, and the Almaden mercury that depended on Sisapo (Valle de Alcudia, Ciudad Real). This production, besides the remains of the same mineral deposits, is demonstrated by the many underwater wrecks in which silver ingots have been found, and lead and copper bars with the seals of Hispanic smelters. Another important mineral extracted in Hispania was ''lapis specularis'', a type of translucent
gypsum Gypsum is a soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate, with the chemical formula . It is widely mined and is used as a fertilizer and as the main constituent in many forms of plaster, blackboard or sidewalk chalk, and drywal ...
, much appreciated as a mineral for the making, as crystal,
window A window is an opening in a wall, door, roof, or vehicle that allows the exchange of light and may also allow the passage of sound and sometimes air. Modern windows are usually glazed or covered in some other transparent or translucent mat ...
s in Rome. Its principal areas of extraction were the current Spanish provinces of Toledo and Cuenca. The city of
Segobriga Segóbriga was an important Celtic and Roman city, and is today an impressive site located on a hill (cerro Cabeza de Griego) near the present town of Saelices. Research has revealed remains of important buildings, which have since been preserved ...
was the administrative center of the mineral's production, and it was the principle economic activity of the city. Beyond all of this, the work in the mines in the times of Roman Hispania took place under appalling conditions. Millions of slaves were employed in mines in extremely dangerous work without any security and without a schedule that is humanly bearable. For a slave, the fate of the mines was the worst of all fortunes, and with almost complete certainty, a slave was destined to spend the rest of their short lives without seeing the light of the sun again, hauling mineral and stone all day long or swinging a pick in the galleries, always under the threat of
cave in Cave In is an American rock band that formed in 1995 in Methuen, Massachusetts. The band's lineup solidified with the 1998 release of ''Until Your Heart Stops'' through Hydra Head Records, and their early albums were prominent in the metalco ...
s.


Agriculture

As soon as the first conquests obtained them, cultivated lands were divided amongst the professional troops, the land being measured and divided for the colonization of the territory. Traditionally, farming had been idealized by Roman culture as the culmination of the aspirations of the citizen. The Romans pushed legislation on land ownership, guaranteeing property lines through surveying techniques and the "centuriazation" of the fields. This policy would allow a rapid colonization of the land. Subsequently, late in the 2nd century BC, this would produce a crisis for the peasantry throughout the territory under Roman rule, caused by the huge quantity of slaves who were employed in all sectors, with a consequent decline in the competitiveness of small farmers. The crisis, despite the failed agrarian reform attempts of the Tribunes Tiberius and Cayo Sempronio Graco, would favor the strengthening of the great landowners, possessors of large expanses of land dedicated to cultivation of a single crop and worked by slaves. The small farmer in many cases would be doomed to abandon his lands and swell the ranks of the growing number of Roman armies.


Olives and commerce in oil

Of the agricultural production of Hispania since the 2nd century BC, the cultivation of
olives The olive, botanical name ''Olea europaea'', meaning 'European olive' in Latin, is a species of small tree or shrub in the family Oleaceae, found traditionally in the Mediterranean Basin. When in shrub form, it is known as ''Olea europaea'' 'M ...
, especially along the Mediterranean coast and Betic Tarragona, stands out. Under the Romans, the province of Bética specialized in the production of olive oil for export to Rome and northern Europe. The deposits of
amphorae An amphora (; grc, ἀμφορεύς, ''amphoreús''; English plural: amphorae or amphoras) is a type of container with a pointed bottom and characteristic shape and size which fit tightly (and therefore safely) against each other in storag ...
from "Mount Testaccio" as much as underwater deposits are evidence of trade with Rome. Mount Testaccio originated as a dumping ground for ceramic packaging of goods that arrived in Rome. From the size that the hill attained, which according to research, 80% of its volume is composed of Betician amphorae for olive oil, one can deduce the magnitude of the trade generated by the oil and hence the importance that olive cultivation had in Hispania. This was undoubtedly the product of Hispania which was marketed in more abundance and for a longer period of time, and indeed is still the foundation of agriculture in southern Iberia. Amphorae of Betic origin has been found, besides in Mount Testaccio (since most of the oil production was sent to Rome until the middle of the 3rd century AD), in locations as diverse as Alexandria, and even Israel. During the 2nd century AD, shipments of oil were destined for the Roman garrisons of Germania. Within the oil trade, the quantity of amphorae found, as much in Mount Testaccio as in other places, stands out. The Sevillian town of Lora del Rio, where one of largest exporters of this product was located, is studied today in the archeological remains of La Catria. However through the history of Roman Hispania, a multitude of potteries and producers of oil existed in
Betica Hispania Baetica, often abbreviated Baetica, was one of three Roman provinces in Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula). Baetica was bordered to the west by Lusitania, and to the northeast by Hispania Tarraconensis. Baetica remained one of the basic ...
itself as much as in the area to the east of it.


Cultivation of grapevines and commerce in wine

With respect to
grapevine ''Vitis'' (grapevine) is a genus of 79 accepted species of vining plants in the flowering plant family Vitaceae. The genus is made up of species predominantly from the Northern Hemisphere. It is economically important as the source of grapes, ...
cultivation, classical sources discuss the quality and quantity of Hispanic stock, some of them highly appreciated in Italy, while the production of others less selective were destined to be consumed by the greater public who had less purchasing power. This crop was produced mostly in the 'fundus' (latifundias), that understood all the processes needed to make
wine Wine is an alcoholic drink typically made from fermented grapes. Yeast consumes the sugar in the grapes and converts it to ethanol and carbon dioxide, releasing heat in the process. Different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts are m ...
, occasionally including the manufacture of the
pottery Pottery is the process and the products of forming vessels and other objects with clay and other ceramic materials, which are fired at high temperatures to give them a hard and durable form. Major types include earthenware, stoneware and ...
needed for the manufacture of the bottle. Because of the number of said 'fundus' and the total production of the same, it was possible to keep the domestic market supplied and to export the considerable excess for consumption of other parts of the Empire.


Treatises of Columella

Inside the chronicles and treatises concerning agriculture in Hispania, the work of Cadizian
Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella (; Arabic: , 4 – ) was a prominent writer on agriculture in the Roman Empire. His ' in twelve volumes has been completely preserved and forms an important source on Roman agriculture, together with the wo ...
is remarkable. In his dozen books, he presented the characteristics of agriculture in his time (1st century AD), criticizing those defects that, in his understanding, ruined the industry, like the abandoning of the fields and the hoarding of land by the great landholders. In these books, he deals extensively with the cultivation of olives and grapevines.


Trade in salted goods

Thanks to archeological research about the production of
amphorae An amphora (; grc, ἀμφορεύς, ''amphoreús''; English plural: amphorae or amphoras) is a type of container with a pointed bottom and characteristic shape and size which fit tightly (and therefore safely) against each other in storag ...
in the southern peninsula, it can be deduced that the commerce of salted
fish Fish are aquatic, craniate, gill-bearing animals that lack limbs with digits. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous and bony fish as well as various extinct related groups. Approximately 95% of ...
existed before the control of Carthage. Evidence exists for production and marketing of salted fish as early as the 5th century BC. The Carthaginians extended this trade throughout all of the western Mediterranean, as much Hispanic as North African. Throughout the Roman period, Hispania stood out for its continuation of the flourishing trade of salted fish from Betica, extending its market throughout western Europe. This activity is reflected in the remains of factories whose product was, in addition to salted fish, the sauce
garum Garum is a fermented fish sauce that was used as a condiment in the cuisines of Phoenicia, ancient Greece, Rome, Carthage and later Byzantium. Liquamen is a similar preparation, and at times they were synonymous. Although garum enjoyed its gre ...
, whose fame was extended throughout the Empire. Garum sauce was produced by the process of maceration of fish viscera. As with the wine and oil trade, the production of garum generated an important auxiliary industry of packaging in amphorae, in which were conserved abundant remains, and thanks to which, it is possible to determine the reach of this trade.


See also

*
Roman economy The study of the Roman economy, which is, the economies of the ancient city-state of Rome and its empire during the Republican and Imperial periods remains highly speculative. There are no surviving records of business and government accounts, suc ...
*
Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula The Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula was a process by which the Roman Republic seized territories in the Iberian Peninsula that were previously under the control of native Celtic, Iberian, Celtiberian and Aquitanian tribes and the Ca ...
*
Romanization of Hispania The Romanization of Hispania is the process by which Roman or Latin culture was introduced into the Iberian Peninsula during the period of Roman rule. Throughout the centuries of Roman rule over the provinces of Hispania, Roman customs, religion, la ...


Bibliography

The Miguel de Cervantes Virtual Library
Los Celtíberos
- Alberto J. Lorrio (
Universidad de Alicante The University of Alicante ( ca-valencia, Universitat d'Alacant, italic=no, ; es, Universidad de Alicante, italic=no, ; also known by the acronym ''UA'') was established in 1979 on the basis of the Center for University Studies (CEU), which was fo ...
)
Las relaciones entre Hispania y el norte de África durante el gobierno bárquida y la conquista romana (237-19 a. J.C.)
- José María Blázquez Martínez
El impacto de la conquista de Hispania en Roma (154-83 a. C.)
- José María Blázquez Martínez

- Juan Manuel Abascal Palazón (
Universidad de Alicante The University of Alicante ( ca-valencia, Universitat d'Alacant, italic=no, ; es, Universidad de Alicante, italic=no, ; also known by the acronym ''UA'') was established in 1979 on the basis of the Center for University Studies (CEU), which was fo ...
)
Segobriga y la religión en la Meseta sur durante el Principado
- Juan Manuel Abascal Palazón (
Universidad de Alicante The University of Alicante ( ca-valencia, Universitat d'Alacant, italic=no, ; es, Universidad de Alicante, italic=no, ; also known by the acronym ''UA'') was established in 1979 on the basis of the Center for University Studies (CEU), which was fo ...
)
Notas a la contribución de la Península Ibérica al erario de la República romana
- José María Blázquez Martínez

- M.ª Carmen Santapau Pastor * ttp://www.cervantesvirtual.com/FichaObra.html?Ref=13653 La exportación del aceite hispano en el Imperio romano: estado de la cuestión- José María Blázquez Martínez
Administración de las minas en época romana. Su evolución
- José María Blázquez Martínez

- José María Blázquez Martínez * ttp://www.cervantesvirtual.com/FichaObra.html?Ref=14047&portal=33 Panorama general de la escultura romana en Cataluña- José María Blázquez Martínez
Destrucción de los mosaicos mitológicos por los cristianos
- José María Blázquez Martínez Other on-line publications
Revista Lucentum, XIX-XX, 2000-2001 (formato PDF)
- ''Las magistraturas locales en las ciudades romanas del área septentrional del Conventus Carthaginensis'', por Julián Hurtado Aguña - ISSN 0213-2338
El uso de la moneda en las ciudades romanas de Hispania en época imperial: el área mediterránea (PDF)
Universitat de Valencia - Servei de publicacions. Nuria Lledó Cardona -
Morfología històrica del territorium de Tarraco en època tardo-republicana romana o ibèrica final
( catalán). Tesis doctoral, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Isaías Arrayás Morales (páginas 200 en adelante) -
Las constituciones imperiales de Hispania (PDF)
Archivo CEIPAC. Fernando Martín
Producción artesanal, viticultura y propiedad rural en la Hispania Tarraconense (PDF)
Archivos CEIPAC. Victor Revilla Calvo (Dept. Prehistoria, Historia Antigua y Arqueología.
Universidad de Barcelona The University of Barcelona ( ca, Universitat de Barcelona, UB; ; es, link=no, Universidad de Barcelona) is a public university located in the city of Barcelona, Catalonia, in Spain. With 63,000 students, it is one of the biggest universities i ...
)
Explotación del salazón en la Bahía de Cádiz en la Antigüedad: Aportación al conocimiento de su evolución a través de la producción de las ánforas Mañá C. (PDF)
Archivos CEIPAC. Lázaro Lagóstena Barrios (
Universidad de Cádiz Universidad (Spanish for "university") may refer to: Places * Universidad, San Juan, Puerto Rico * Universidad (Madrid) Football clubs * Universidad SC, a Guatemalan football club that represents the Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala ...
)
La agricultura como «officium» en el mundo romano (PDF)
Archivos de la Universidad de Lieja (Bélgica). Rosalía Rodríguez López (Universidad de
Almería Almería (, , ) is a city and municipality of Spain, located in Andalusia. It is the capital of the province of the same name. It lies on southeastern Iberia on the Mediterranean Sea. Caliph Abd al-Rahman III founded the city in 955. The city g ...
)
Observaciones sobre el depósito de la cosa debida en caso de «mora creditoris» (PDF)
Archivos de la Universidad de Lieja (Bélgica). Elena Quintana Orive ( Universidad Autónoma de Madrid) Printed works *''España y los españoles hace dos mil años (según la Geografía de Estrabón)'' de Antonio Gª y Bellido. Colección Austral de Espasa Calpe S.A., Madrid 1945. *''Las artes y los pueblos de la España primitiva'' de José Camón Aznar (catedrático de la Universidad de Madrid. Editorial Espasa Calpe, S.A. Madrid, 1954 *''El trabajo en la Hispania Romana''. VVAA. Ed. Sílex, 1999. *''Diccionario de los Íberos''. Pellón Olagorta, Ramón. Espasa Calpe S.A. Madrid 2001. *''Geografía histórica española'' de Amando Melón. Editorial Volvntad, S.A., Tomo primero, Vol. I-Serie E. Madrid 1928 *''Historia de España y de la civilización española''. Rafael Altamira y Crevea. Tomo I. Barcelona, 1900. *''Historia ilustrada de España''. Antonio Urbieto Arteta. Volumen II. Editorial Debate, Madrid 1994. *''Historia de España. España romana, I''. Bosch Gimpera, Aguado Bleye, José Ferrandis. Obra dirigida por Ramón Menéndez Pidal. Editorial Espasa-Calpe S.A., Madrid 1935 *''Arte Hispalense, nº21: Pinturas romanas en Sevilla''. Abad Casal, Lorenzo. Publicaciones de la Exma. Diputación Provincial de Sevilla. *''El mosaico romano en Hispania : crónica ilustrada de una sociedad''. Tarrats Bou, F. Alfafar : Global Edition - Contents, S.A. . Libro declarado «de interés turístico nacional»

(enlace a Boletín Oficial del Estado, BOE nº 44, 21 February 2005, PDF)


External links

The Virtual Library of Miguel de Cervantes:
Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes: La Hispania prerromanaBiblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes: Hispania Romana
University sources:

* ttps://web.archive.org/web/20090318194431/http://ceipac.gh.ub.es/ Departament de Prehistòria, Història Antiga i Arqueologia - Facultat de Geografia i Història, Universitat de Barcelona- ''Centro para el estudio de la interdependencia provincial en la antigüedad clásica (CEIPAC)''
Exposición «El monte de las ánforas»
- Una exposición en profundidad sobre el monte Testaccio y su importancia en la comprensión de la economía romana.
Universitat de les Illes Balears (pdf)
- Documento con bibliografía relacionada Other links:
Celtiberia.net: Mercenarios hispanos durante la Segunda Guerra Púnica
* ttp://www.simulacraromae.org/ Simulacra Romae - Las capitales provinciales romanasbr>Identificación de puentes romanos en Hispania
* ttps://web.archive.org/web/20090730032334/http://geocities.com/Athens/Academy/5936/castel.htm Zona arqueológica de Cercadilla (Córdoba)br>Augusta Emerita
* ttps://web.archive.org/web/20090404113025/http://traianus.rediris.es/textos/hidraulicas.htm Obras hidráulicas romanas en Hispaniabr>El garum, la salsa del Imperio Romano
- ''El «Garum Gaditanum»''

- ''Las explotaciones mineras de Lapis Specularis en Hispania''

- ''Algunas cecas provinciales romanas''

- ''Algunas cecas imperiales romanas''
Acropoliscórdoba.org
- ''El alma de la pintura en Roma''

- ''Escultura romana: el retrato'' {{DEFAULTSORT:Economy Of Hispania Hispania
Hispania Hispania ( la, Hispānia , ; nearly identically pronounced in Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, and Italian) was the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula and its provinces. Under the Roman Republic, Hispania was divided into two provinces: Hisp ...
Economic history of Spain