mathematics Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in modern mathematics ...

, a constructible polygon is a

regular polygon In Euclidean geometry, a regular polygon is a polygon that is Equiangular polygon, direct equiangular (all angles are equal in measure) and Equilateral polygon, equilateral (all sides have the same length). Regular polygons may be either convex p ...

that can be constructed with compass and straightedge. For example, a regular

pentagon In geometry, a pentagon (from the Greek πέντε ''pente'' meaning ''five'' and γωνία ''gonia'' meaning ''angle'') is any five-sided polygon or 5-gon. The sum of the internal angles in a simple pentagon is 540°. A pentagon may be simpl ...

is constructible with compass and straightedge while a regular

heptagon In geometry, a heptagon or septagon is a seven-sided polygon or 7-gon. The heptagon is sometimes referred to as the septagon, using "sept-" (an elision of ''septua-'', a Latin-derived numerical prefix, rather than ''hepta-'', a Greek-derived num ...

is not. There are infinitely many constructible polygons, but only 31 with an

odd number In mathematics, parity is the property of an integer of whether it is even or odd. An integer is even if it is a multiple of two, and odd if it is not.. For example, −4, 0, 82 are even because \begin -2 \cdot 2 &= -4 \\ 0 \cdot 2 &= 0 \\ 41 ...

of sides are known.

Conditions for constructibility

Some regular polygons are easy to construct with compass and straightedge; others are not. The

ancient Greek mathematicians Greek mathematics refers to mathematics texts and ideas stemming from the Archaic through the Hellenistic and Roman periods, mostly extant from the 7th century BC to the 4th century AD, around the shores of the Eastern Mediterranean. Greek mathem ...

knew how to construct a regular polygon with 3, 4, or 5 sides, and they knew how to construct a regular polygon with double the number of sides of a given regular polygon.Bold, Benjamin. ''Famous Problems of Geometry and How to Solve Them'', Dover Publications, 1982 (orig. 1969). This led to the question being posed: is it possible to construct ''all'' regular polygons with compass and straightedge? If not, which ''n''-gons (that is,

polygon In geometry, a polygon () is a plane figure that is described by a finite number of straight line segments connected to form a closed ''polygonal chain'' (or ''polygonal circuit''). The bounded plane region, the bounding circuit, or the two toge ...

s with ''n'' edges) are constructible and which are not?

Carl Friedrich Gauss Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (; german: Gauß ; la, Carolus Fridericus Gauss; 30 April 177723 February 1855) was a German mathematician and physicist who made significant contributions to many fields in mathematics and science. Sometimes refer ...

proved the constructibility of the regular 17-gon in 1796. Five years later, he developed the theory of

Gaussian period In mathematics, in the area of number theory, a Gaussian period is a certain kind of sum of roots of unity. The periods permit explicit calculations in cyclotomic fields connected with Galois theory and with harmonic analysis (discrete Fourier tra ...

s in his ''

Disquisitiones Arithmeticae The (Latin for "Arithmetical Investigations") is a textbook of number theory written in Latin by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1798 when Gauss was 21 and first published in 1801 when he was 24. It is notable for having had a revolutionary impact on th ...

''. This theory allowed him to formulate a

sufficient condition In logic and mathematics, necessity and sufficiency are terms used to describe a conditional or implicational relationship between two statements. For example, in the conditional statement: "If then ", is necessary for , because the truth of ...

for the constructibility of regular polygons. Gauss stated without proof that this condition was also necessary, but never published his proof. A full proof of necessity was given by

Pierre Wantzel Pierre Laurent Wantzel (5 June 1814 in Paris – 21 May 1848 in Paris) was a French mathematician who proved that several ancient geometric problems were impossible to solve using only compass and straightedge. In a paper from 1837, Wantzel pr ...

in 1837. The result is known as the Gauss–Wantzel theorem: :A regular ''n''-gon can be constructed with compass and straightedge

if and only if In logic and related fields such as mathematics and philosophy, "if and only if" (shortened as "iff") is a biconditional logical connective between statements, where either both statements are true or both are false. The connective is bicondi ...

''n'' is the product of a

power of 2 A power of two is a number of the form where is an integer, that is, the result of exponentiation with number two as the base and integer as the exponent. In a context where only integers are considered, is restricted to non-negative ...

and any number of distinct

Fermat prime In mathematics, a Fermat number, named after Pierre de Fermat, who first studied them, is a positive integer of the form :F_ = 2^ + 1, where ''n'' is a non-negative integer. The first few Fermat numbers are: : 3, 5, 17, 257, 65537, 429496 ...

s (including none). A Fermat prime is a

prime number A prime number (or a prime) is a natural number greater than 1 that is not a product of two smaller natural numbers. A natural number greater than 1 that is not prime is called a composite number. For example, 5 is prime because the only ways ...

of the form

2^ + 1.

In order to reduce a geometric problem to a problem of pure

number theory Number theory (or arithmetic or higher arithmetic in older usage) is a branch of pure mathematics devoted primarily to the study of the integers and arithmetic function, integer-valued functions. German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777� ...

, the proof uses the fact that a regular ''n''-gon is constructible if and only if the cosine

\cos(2\pi/n)

is a

constructible number In geometry and algebra, a real number r is constructible if and only if, given a line segment of unit length, a line segment of length , r, can be constructed with compass and straightedge in a finite number of steps. Equivalently, r is cons ...

—that is, can be written in terms of the four basic arithmetic operations and the extraction of

square root In mathematics, a square root of a number is a number such that ; in other words, a number whose ''square'' (the result of multiplying the number by itself, or  ⋅ ) is . For example, 4 and −4 are square roots of 16, because . E ...

s. Equivalently, a regular ''n''-gon is constructible if any

root In vascular plants, the roots are the organs of a plant that are modified to provide anchorage for the plant and take in water and nutrients into the plant body, which allows plants to grow taller and faster. They are most often below the sur ...

of the ''n''th

cyclotomic polynomial In mathematics, the ''n''th cyclotomic polynomial, for any positive integer ''n'', is the unique irreducible polynomial with integer coefficients that is a divisor of x^n-1 and is not a divisor of x^k-1 for any Its roots are all ''n''th primiti ...

is constructible.

Detailed results by Gauss's theory

Restating the Gauss-Wantzel theorem: :A regular ''n''-gon is constructible with straightedge and compass if and only if ''n'' = 2^''k''''p''₁''p''₂...''p''_''t'' where ''k'' and ''t'' are non-negative

integer An integer is the number zero (), a positive natural number (, , , etc.) or a negative integer with a minus sign (−1, −2, −3, etc.). The negative numbers are the additive inverses of the corresponding positive numbers. In the language ...

s, and the ''p''_''i'''s (when ''t'' > 0) are distinct Fermat primes. The five known

Fermat primes In mathematics, a Fermat number, named after Pierre de Fermat, who first studied them, is a positive integer of the form :F_ = 2^ + 1, where ''n'' is a non-negative integer. The first few Fermat numbers are: : 3, 5, 17, 257, 65537, 4294967 ...

are: :''F''₀ = 3, ''F''₁ = 5, ''F''₂ = 17, ''F''₃ = 257, and ''F''₄ = 65537 . Since there are 31 combinations of anywhere from one to five Fermat primes, there are 31 known constructible polygons with an odd number of sides. The next twenty-eight Fermat numbers, ''F''₅ through ''F''₃₂, are known to be

composite Composite or compositing may refer to: Materials * Composite material, a material that is made from several different substances ** Metal matrix composite, composed of metal and other parts ** Cermet, a composite of ceramic and metallic materials ...

. Thus a regular ''n''-gon is constructible if :''n'' = 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 16, 17, 20, 24, 30, 32, 34, 40, 48, 51, 60, 64, 68, 80, 85, 96, 102, 120, 128, 136, 160, 170, 192, 204, 240, 255, 256, 257, 272, 320, 340, 384, 408, 480, 510, 512, 514, 544, 640, 680, 768, 771, 816, 960, 1020, 1024, 1028, 1088, 1280, 1285, 1360, 1536, 1542, 1632, 1920, 2040, 2048, ... , while a regular ''n''-gon is not constructible with compass and straightedge if :''n'' = 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 81, 82, 83, 84, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, ... .

Connection to Pascal's triangle

Since there are 5 known Fermat primes, we know of 31 numbers that are products of distinct Fermat primes, and hence 31 constructible odd-sided regular polygons. These are 3, 5, 15, 17, 51, 85, 255, 257, 771, 1285, 3855, 4369, 13107, 21845, 65535,

65537 65537 is the integer after 65536 and before 65538. In mathematics 65537 is the largest known prime number of the form 2^ +1 (n = 4). Therefore, a regular polygon with 65537 sides is constructible with compass and unmarked straightedge. Johann ...

, 196611, 327685, 983055, 1114129, 3342387, 5570645, 16711935, 16843009, 50529027, 84215045, 252645135, 286331153, 858993459, 1431655765, 4294967295 . As

John Conway John Horton Conway (26 December 1937 – 11 April 2020) was an English mathematician active in the theory of finite groups, knot theory, number theory, combinatorial game theory and coding theory. He also made contributions to many branches ...

commented in ''The Book of Numbers'', these numbers, when written in

binary Binary may refer to: Science and technology Mathematics * Binary number, a representation of numbers using only two digits (0 and 1) * Binary function, a function that takes two arguments * Binary operation, a mathematical operation that ta ...

, are equal to the first 32 rows of the modulo-2

Pascal's triangle In mathematics, Pascal's triangle is a triangular array of the binomial coefficients that arises in probability theory, combinatorics, and algebra. In much of the Western world, it is named after the French mathematician Blaise Pascal, although o ...

, minus the top row, which corresponds to a

monogon In geometry, a monogon, also known as a henagon, is a polygon with one edge and one vertex. It has Schläfli symbol .Coxeter, ''Introduction to geometry'', 1969, Second edition, sec 21.3 ''Regular maps'', p. 386-388 In Euclidean geometry In Eucli ...

. (Because of this, the 1s in such a list form an approximation to the

Sierpiński triangle The Sierpiński triangle (sometimes spelled ''Sierpinski''), also called the Sierpiński gasket or Sierpiński sieve, is a fractal attractive fixed set with the overall shape of an equilateral triangle, subdivided recursively into smaller equi ...

.) This pattern breaks down after this, as the next Fermat number is composite (4294967297 = 641 × 6700417), so the following rows do not correspond to constructible polygons. It is unknown whether any more Fermat primes exist, and it is therefore unknown how many odd-sided constructible regular polygons exist. In general, if there are ''q'' Fermat primes, then there are 2^''q''−1 regular constructible polygons.

General theory

In the light of later work on

Galois theory In mathematics, Galois theory, originally introduced by Évariste Galois, provides a connection between field theory and group theory. This connection, the fundamental theorem of Galois theory, allows reducing certain problems in field theory to ...

, the principles of these proofs have been clarified. It is straightforward to show from

analytic geometry In classical mathematics, analytic geometry, also known as coordinate geometry or Cartesian geometry, is the study of geometry using a coordinate system. This contrasts with synthetic geometry. Analytic geometry is used in physics and engineerin ...

that constructible lengths must come from base lengths by the solution of some sequence of

quadratic equation In algebra, a quadratic equation () is any equation that can be rearranged in standard form as ax^2 + bx + c = 0\,, where represents an unknown (mathematics), unknown value, and , , and represent known numbers, where . (If and then the equati ...

s. In terms of field theory, such lengths must be contained in a field extension generated by a tower of

quadratic extension In mathematics, particularly in algebra, a field extension is a pair of fields E\subseteq F, such that the operations of ''E'' are those of ''F'' restricted to ''E''. In this case, ''F'' is an extension field of ''E'' and ''E'' is a subfield of ...

s. It follows that a field generated by constructions will always have

degree Degree may refer to: As a unit of measurement * Degree (angle), a unit of angle measurement ** Degree of geographical latitude ** Degree of geographical longitude * Degree symbol (°), a notation used in science, engineering, and mathematics ...

over the base field that is a power of two. In the specific case of a regular ''n''-gon, the question reduces to the question of constructing a length :cos , which is a

trigonometric number In mathematics, the values of the trigonometric functions can be expressed approximately, as in \cos (\pi/4) \approx 0.707, or exactly, as in \cos (\pi/ 4)= \sqrt 2 /2. While trigonometric tables contain many approximate values, the exact values ...

and hence an

algebraic number An algebraic number is a number that is a root of a non-zero polynomial in one variable with integer (or, equivalently, rational) coefficients. For example, the golden ratio, (1 + \sqrt)/2, is an algebraic number, because it is a root of the po ...

. This number lies in the ''n''-th

cyclotomic field In number theory, a cyclotomic field is a number field obtained by adjoining a complex root of unity to , the field of rational numbers. Cyclotomic fields played a crucial role in the development of modern algebra and number theory because of ...

— and in fact in its

real Real may refer to: Currencies * Brazilian real (R$) * Central American Republic real * Mexican real * Portuguese real * Spanish real * Spanish colonial real Music Albums * ''Real'' (L'Arc-en-Ciel album) (2000) * ''Real'' (Bright album) (2010) ...

subfield, which is a

totally real field In number theory, a number field ''F'' is called totally real if for each embedding of ''F'' into the complex numbers the image lies inside the real numbers. Equivalent conditions are that ''F'' is generated over Q by one root of an integer polyno ...

and a

rational Rationality is the quality of being guided by or based on reasons. In this regard, a person acts rationally if they have a good reason for what they do or a belief is rational if it is based on strong evidence. This quality can apply to an abi ...

vector space In mathematics and physics, a vector space (also called a linear space) is a set whose elements, often called ''vectors'', may be added together and multiplied ("scaled") by numbers called '' scalars''. Scalars are often real numbers, but can ...

dimension In physics and mathematics, the dimension of a Space (mathematics), mathematical space (or object) is informally defined as the minimum number of coordinates needed to specify any Point (geometry), point within it. Thus, a Line (geometry), lin ...

:½ φ(''n''), where φ(''n'') is

Euler's totient function In number theory, Euler's totient function counts the positive integers up to a given integer that are relatively prime to . It is written using the Greek letter phi as \varphi(n) or \phi(n), and may also be called Euler's phi function. In ot ...

. Wantzel's result comes down to a calculation showing that φ(''n'') is a power of 2 precisely in the cases specified. As for the construction of Gauss, when the

Galois group In mathematics, in the area of abstract algebra known as Galois theory, the Galois group of a certain type of field extension is a specific group associated with the field extension. The study of field extensions and their relationship to the pol ...

is a 2-group it follows that it has a sequence of

subgroup In group theory, a branch of mathematics, given a group ''G'' under a binary operation ∗, a subset ''H'' of ''G'' is called a subgroup of ''G'' if ''H'' also forms a group under the operation ∗. More precisely, ''H'' is a subgroup ...

s of orders :1, 2, 4, 8, ... that are nested, each in the next (a

composition series In abstract algebra, a composition series provides a way to break up an algebraic structure, such as a group or a module, into simple pieces. The need for considering composition series in the context of modules arises from the fact that many natura ...

, in

group theory In abstract algebra, group theory studies the algebraic structures known as group (mathematics), groups. The concept of a group is central to abstract algebra: other well-known algebraic structures, such as ring (mathematics), rings, field ...

terminology), something simple to prove by

induction Induction, Inducible or Inductive may refer to: Biology and medicine * Labor induction (birth/pregnancy) * Induction chemotherapy, in medicine * Induced stem cells, stem cells derived from somatic, reproductive, pluripotent or other cell t ...

in this case of an

abelian group In mathematics, an abelian group, also called a commutative group, is a group in which the result of applying the group operation to two group elements does not depend on the order in which they are written. That is, the group operation is comm ...

. Therefore, there are subfields nested inside the cyclotomic field, each of degree 2 over the one before. Generators for each such field can be written down by

theory. For example, for ''n'' = 17 there is a period that is a sum of eight

roots of unity In mathematics, a root of unity, occasionally called a de Moivre number, is any complex number that yields 1 when raised to some positive integer power . Roots of unity are used in many branches of mathematics, and are especially important in ...

, one that is a sum of four roots of unity, and one that is the sum of two, which is :cos . Each of those is a root of a

in terms of the one before. Moreover, these equations have

rather than

complex Complex commonly refers to: * Complexity, the behaviour of a system whose components interact in multiple ways so possible interactions are difficult to describe ** Complex system, a system composed of many components which may interact with each ...

roots, so in principle can be solved by geometric construction: this is because the work all goes on inside a totally real field. In this way the result of Gauss can be understood in current terms; for actual calculation of the equations to be solved, the periods can be squared and compared with the 'lower' periods, in a quite feasible algorithm.

Compass and straightedge constructions

Compass and straightedge construction In geometry, straightedge-and-compass construction – also known as ruler-and-compass construction, Euclidean construction, or classical construction – is the construction of lengths, angles, and other geometric figures using only an ideali ...

s are known for all known constructible polygons. If ''n'' = ''pq'' with ''p'' = 2 or ''p'' and ''q''

coprime In mathematics, two integers and are coprime, relatively prime or mutually prime if the only positive integer that is a divisor of both of them is 1. Consequently, any prime number that divides does not divide , and vice versa. This is equivale ...

, an ''n''-gon can be constructed from a ''p''-gon and a ''q''-gon. *If ''p'' = 2, draw a ''q''-gon and bisect one of its central angles. From this, a 2''q''-gon can be constructed. *If ''p'' > 2, inscribe a ''p''-gon and a ''q''-gon in the same circle in such a way that they share a vertex. Because ''p'' and ''q'' are coprime, there exists integers ''a'' and ''b'' such that ''ap'' + ''bq'' = 1. Then 2''a''π/''q'' + 2''b''π/''p'' = 2π/''pq''. From this, a ''pq''-gon can be constructed. Thus one only has to find a compass and straightedge construction for ''n''-gons where ''n'' is a Fermat prime. *The construction for an equilateral

triangle A triangle is a polygon with three Edge (geometry), edges and three Vertex (geometry), vertices. It is one of the basic shapes in geometry. A triangle with vertices ''A'', ''B'', and ''C'' is denoted \triangle ABC. In Euclidean geometry, an ...

is simple and has been known since antiquity; see

Equilateral triangle In geometry, an equilateral triangle is a triangle in which all three sides have the same length. In the familiar Euclidean geometry, an equilateral triangle is also equiangular; that is, all three internal angles are also congruent to each othe ...

. *Constructions for the regular

were described both by

Euclid Euclid (; grc-gre, Wikt:Εὐκλείδης, Εὐκλείδης; BC) was an ancient Greek mathematician active as a geometer and logician. Considered the "father of geometry", he is chiefly known for the ''Euclid's Elements, Elements'' trea ...

('' Elements'', ca. 300 BC), and by

Ptolemy Claudius Ptolemy (; grc-gre, Πτολεμαῖος, ; la, Claudius Ptolemaeus; AD) was a mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist, who wrote about a dozen scientific treatises, three of which were of importanc ...

('' Almagest'', ca. 150 AD). *Although Gauss ''proved'' that the regular 17-gon is constructible, he did not actually ''show'' how to do it. The first construction is due to Erchinger, a few years after Gauss' work. *The first explicit constructions of a regular

257-gon In geometry, a 257-gon is a polygon with 257 sides. The sum of the interior angles of any non- self-intersecting 257-gon is 45,900°. Regular 257-gon The area of a regular 257-gon is (with ) :A = \frac t^2 \cot \frac\approx 5255.751t^2. A who ...

were given by

Magnus Georg Paucker Magnus Georg von Paucker (russian: Магнус-Георг Андреевич Паукер, translit=Magnus-Georg Andreevič Pauker; – ) was a Baltic German astronomer and mathematician and the first Demidov Prize winner in 1832 for his wor ...

(1822) and

Friedrich Julius Richelot Friedrich Julius Richelot (6 November 1808 – 31 March 1875) was a German mathematician, born in Königsberg. He was a student of Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi. He was promoted in 1831 at the Philosophical Faculty of the University of Königsberg wit ...

(1832). *A construction for a regular

65537-gon In geometry, a 65537-gon is a polygon with 65,537 (216 + 1) sides. The sum of the interior angles of any non– self-intersecting is 11796300°. Regular 65537-gon The area of a ''regular '' is (with ) :A = \frac t^2 \cot \frac A whole regula ...

was first given by

Johann Gustav Hermes Johann Gustav Hermes (20 June 1846 – 8 June 1912) was a German mathematician. Hermes is known for completion of a polygon with 65,537 sides. Early life On 20 June 1846, Hermes was born in Königsberg, a former German city (presently Kalinin ...

(1894). The construction is very complex; Hermes spent 10 years completing the 200-page manuscript.

Gallery

From left to right, constructions of a 15-gon, 17-gon,

and

. Only the first stage of the 65537-gon construction is shown; the constructions of the 15-gon, 17-gon, and 257-gon are given completely.

Other constructions

The concept of constructibility as discussed in this article applies specifically to compass and straightedge constructions. More constructions become possible if other tools are allowed. The so-called

neusis construction In geometry, the neusis (; ; plural: grc, νεύσεις, neuseis, label=none) is a geometric construction method that was used in antiquity by Greek mathematicians. Geometric construction The neusis construction consists of fitting a line e ...

s, for example, make use of a ''marked'' ruler. The constructions are a mathematical idealization and are assumed to be done exactly. A regular polygon with ''n'' sides can be constructed with ruler, compass, and

angle trisector Angle trisection is a classical problem of straightedge and compass construction of ancient Greek mathematics. It concerns construction of an angle equal to one third of a given arbitrary angle, using only two tools: an unmarked straightedge and ...

if and only if

n=2^r3^sp_1p_2\cdots p_k,

where ''r, s, k'' ≥ 0 and where the ''p''_''i'' are distinct

Pierpont prime In number theory, a Pierpont prime is a prime number of the form 2^u\cdot 3^v + 1\, for some nonnegative integers and . That is, they are the prime numbers for which is 3-smooth. They are named after the mathematician James Pierpont, who use ...

s greater than 3 (primes of the form

2^t3^u +1).

These polygons are exactly the regular polygons that can be constructed with

Conic section In mathematics, a conic section, quadratic curve or conic is a curve obtained as the intersection of the surface of a cone with a plane. The three types of conic section are the hyperbola, the parabola, and the ellipse; the circle is a specia ...

, and the regular polygons that can be constructed with

paper folding ) is the Japanese art of paper folding. In modern usage, the word "origami" is often used as an inclusive term for all folding practices, regardless of their culture of origin. The goal is to transform a flat square sheet of paper into a f ...

. The first numbers of sides of these polygons are: :3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 24, 26, 27, 28, 30, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 42, 45, 48, 51, 52, 54, 56, 57, 60, 63, 64, 65, 68, 70, 72, 73, 74, 76, 78, 80, 81, 84, 85, 90, 91, 95, 96, 97, 102, 104, 105, 108, 109, 111, 112, 114, 117, 119, 120, 126, 128, 130, 133, 135, 136, 140, 144, 146, 148, 152, 153, 156, 160, 162, 163, 168, 170, 171, 180, 182, 185, 189, 190, 192, 193, 194, 195, 204, 208, 210, 216, 218, 219, 221, 222, 224, 228, 234, 238, 240, 243, 247, 252, 255, 256, 257, 259, 260, 266, 270, 272, 273, 280, 285, 288, 291, 292, 296, ...

References

External links

* *
Regular Polygon Formulas
Ask Dr. Math FAQ. * Carl Schick: Weiche Primzahlen und das 257-Eck : eine analytische Lösung des 257-Ecks. Zürich : C. Schick, 2008. {{ISBN, 978-3-9522917-1-9.
65537-gon, exact construction for the 1st side
using the

Quadratrix of Hippias The quadratrix or trisectrix of Hippias (also quadratrix of Dinostratus) is a curve which is created by a uniform motion. It is one of the oldest examples for a kinematic curve (a curve created through motion). Its discovery is attributed to the ...

and

GeoGebra GeoGebra (a portmanteau of ''geometry'' and ''algebra'') is an interactive geometry, algebra, statistics and calculus application, intended for learning and teaching mathematics and science from primary school to university level. GeoGebra is ...

as additional aids, with brief description (German) Euclidean plane geometry Carl Friedrich Gauss