HOME
        TheInfoList






Click Here for Items Related To - Celtic Nations

The Celtic nations are territories in western Europe where Celtic languages or cultural traits have survived.[1] The term "nation" is used in its original sense to mean a people who share a common identity and culture and are identified with a traditional territory.

The six territories widely considered Celtic nations are Brittany (Breizh), Cornwall (Kernow), Wales (Cymru), Scotland (Alba), Ireland (Éire) and the Isle of Man (Mannin or Ellan Vannin),[1][2] commonly referred to as the "Celtic fringe". In each of the six nations a Celtic language is spoken.[3]

Before the expansions of Ancient Rome and the Germanic and Slavic tribes, a significant part of Europe was dominated by Celts, leaving behind a legacy of Celtic cultural traits.[4] Territories in north-western Iberia—particularly Galicia, northern Portugal and Asturias, historically referred to as Gallaecia and Astures, covering north-central Portugal and northern Spain—are considered Celtic nations due to their culture and history.[5] Unlike the others, however, no Celtic language has been spoken there in modern times.[5][6][7]

A genetics study from an Oxford University research team in 2006 claimed that the majority of Britons, including many of the English, are descended from a group of tribes which arrived from Iberia around 5000 BC, prior to the spread of Celts into western Europe.[4] However, three major genetic studies in 2015 have instead shown that haplogroup R1b in western Europe, most common in traditionally Celtic-speaking areas of Atlantic Europe like Ireland and Brittany, would have largely expanded in massive migrations from the Indo-European homeland, the Yamna culture in the Pontic-Caspian steppe, during the Bronze Age along with carriers of Indo-European languages like proto-Celtic. Unlike previous studies, large sections of autosomal DNA were analyzed in addition to paternal Y-DNA markers. They detected an autosomal component present in modern Europeans which was not present in Neolithic or Mesolithic Europeans, and which would have been introduced into Europe with paternal lineages R1b and R1a, as well as the Indo-European languages. This genetic component, labelled as "Yamna" in the studies, then mixed to varying degrees with earlier Mesolithic hunter-gatherer and/or Neolithic farmer populations already existing in western Europe.[8][9][10]

Six Celtic nations

Each of the six nations has its own Celtic language. In Wales, Ireland, Brittany, and Scotland these have been spoken continuously through time, while Cornwall and the Isle of Man have languages that were spoken into modern times but later died as spoken community languages.[11][12] In the latter two regions, however, language revitalization movements have led to the adoption of these languages by adults and produced a number of native speakers.[13]

Ireland, Wales, Brittany and Scotland contain areas where a Celtic language is used on a daily basis; in Ireland the area is called the Gaeltacht on the west coast; Y Fro Gymraeg in Wales, and in Brittany Breizh-Izel.[14] Generally these communities are in the west of their countries and in more isolated upland or island areas. The term Gàidhealtachd historically distinguished the Gaelic-speaking areas of Scotland (the Highlands) from the Lowland Scots (i.e. Anglo-Saxon-speaking) areas. More recently, this term has also been adopted as the Gaelic name of the Highland council area, which includes non-Gaelic speaking areas. Hence, more specific terms such as sgìre Ghàidhlig ("Gaelic-speaking area") are now used.

In Wales, the Welsh language is a core curriculum (compulsory) subject, which all pupils study.[15] Additionally, 20% of school children in Wales go to Welsh medium schools, where they are taught entirely in the Welsh language.[16] In the Republic of Ireland, all school children study Irish as one of the three core subjects up until the end of secondary school, and 7.4% of primary school education is through Irish medium education, which is part of the Gaelscoil movement.[16]

Other territories

Parts of the northern Iberian Peninsula, namely Galicia, Cantabria, Asturias and Northern Portugal, also lay claim to this heritage.[5] Musicians from Galicia and Asturias have participated in Celtic music festivals, such as the Ortigueira's Festival of Celtic World in the village of Ortigueira or the Breton Festival Interceltique de Lorient, which in 2013 celebrated the Year of Asturias.[17] Northern Portugal, part of ancient Gallaecia (Galicia, Minho, Douro and Trás-os-Montes), also has traditions quite similar to Galicia.[5] However, no Celtic language has been spoken in northern Iberia since probably the Early Middle Ages.[18][19]

Irish was once widely spoken on the island of Newfoundland before largely disappearing there by the early 20th century. Vestiges remain in some words found in Newfoundland English, such as scrob for "scratch", and sleveen for "rascal"[20] There are no fluent speakers of Scottish Gaelic in Newfoundland or Labrador today. Knowledge seems to be largely restricted to memorized passages, such as traditional tales and songs.[20]

Canadian Gaelic dialects of Scottish Gaelic are still spoken by Gaels in other parts of Atlantic Canada, primarily on Cape Breton Island and adjacent areas of Nova Scotia. In 2011, there were 1,275 Gaelic speakers in Nova Scotia,[21] and 300 residents of the province considered a Gaelic language to be their "mother tongue".[22]

Patagonian Welsh is spoken principally in Y Wladfa in the Chubut Province of Patagonia with sporadic speakers throughout Argentina by Welsh Argentines. Estimates of the number of Welsh speakers range from 1,500[23] to 5,000.[24]

Celtic languages

The chart below shows the population of each Celtic nation and the number of people in each nation who can speak Celtic languages. The total number of people residing in the Celtic nations is 19,596,000 people and, of these, the total number of people who can speak the Celtic languages is approximately 2,818,000 or 14.3%.

The Celtic nations and languages
Nation Celtic name Celtic language People Population Competent speakers Percentage of population
Republic of Ireland Ireland1 Éire Irish
(Gaeilge)		 Irish
(Éireannaigh, Gaeil)		 6,399,115 (ROI 4,588,252, NI 1,810,863)[25] 1,944,353 total:
— Ireland: 1,904,958 (ROI 1,774,437, NI 130,521)[26][27]
— United States: 30,000
— Canada: 7,500
— Australia: 1,895		 29.7% (ROI 38.6%, NI 7.2%)
 Scotland Alba Scottish Gaelic
(Gàidhlig)		 Scottish
(Albannaich)		 5,313,600 92,400[28] 1.2%[29]
 Brittany Breizh Breton
(brezhoneg)		 Bretons
(Breizhiz)		 4,300,000 206,000[30] 5%[30]
 Wales Cymru Welsh
(Cymraeg)		 Welsh
(Cymry)		 3,000,000 750,000+ total:
— Wales: 611,000[31]
— England: 150,000 [32]
— Argentina: 5,000[33]
— United States: 2,500 [34]
— Canada: 2,200 [35]		 21.7%[36]
 Cornwall Kernow Cornish
(Kernowek)		 Cornish
(Kernowyon)		 500,000 2,000[37] 0.1%[38][39]
 Isle of Man Mannin
Ellan Vannin		 Manx
(Gaelg)		 Manx
(Manninee)		 84,497[40] 1,662[40] 2.0%[40]
  • 1 The flag of the Republic of Ireland is used by the Celtic League to represent Ireland, although there is no universally accepted flag for the whole of the island.

Of the languages above, three belong to the Goidelic or Gaelic branch (Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx) and three to the Brythonic or Brittonic branch (Welsh, Cornish and Breton). Their names for each other in each language shows some of the similarities and differences:[citation needed]

Names of the Celtic nations (and related terms) in the living Celtic languages

(English)		 Irish
(Gaeilge)		 Scottish Gaelic
(Gàidhlig)		 Manx
(Gaelg)		 Welsh
(Cymraeg)		 Cornish[41]
(Kernowek)		 Breton
(Brezhoneg)
Ireland Éire Èirinn Nerin Iwerddon Wordhen
Iwerdhon		 Iwerzhon
Scotland Albain Alba Nalbin yr Alban Alban Bro-Skos
Skos
Alban
Mann
Isle of Man		 Manainn
Oileán Mhanann		 Manainn
Eilean Mhanainn		 Mannin
Ellan Vannin		 Manaw
Ynys Manaw		 Manow
Enys Vanow		 Manav
Enez-Vanav
Wales an Bhreatain Bheag a' Chuimrigh Bretin Cymru Kembra Kembre
Cornwall Corn na Breataine a' Chòrn yn Chorn Cernyw Kernow Kernev-Veur
Brittany an Bhriotáin a' Bhreatainn Bheag yn Vritaan Llydaw Breten Vian Breizh
Great Britain an Bhreatain Mhór Breatainn Mhòr Bretin Vooar Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Breizh-Veur
Celtic
nations		 náisiúin
Cheilteacha		 nàiseanan
Ceilteach		 ashoonyn
Celtiagh		 gwledydd
Celtaidd		 broyow
keltek		 broioù
keltiek
Celtic
languages		 teangacha
Ceilteacha		 cànanan
Cheilteach		 çhengaghyn
Celtiagh		 ieithoedd
Celtaidd		 yethow
keltek		 yezhoù
keltiek

Celtic identity

Main article: Celts (modern)
Group of young men and women, wearing white shirts (some with black waistcoats) and black trousers, marching in a parade, in the sunshine. Each is playing a bagpipe. The bag is a claret colour. The entire picture is full of people. Those not taking part in the parade are watching the procession.
Pipers at the Festival Interceltique de Lorient

Formal cooperation between the Celtic nations is active in many contexts, including politics, languages, culture, music and sports:

The Celtic League is an inter-Celtic political organisation, which campaigns for the political, language, cultural and social rights, affecting one or more of the Celtic nations.[42]

Established in 1917, the Celtic Congress is a non-political organisation that seeks to promote Celtic culture and languages and to maintain intellectual contact and close cooperation between Celtic peoples.[43]

Festivals celebrating the culture of the Celtic nations include the Festival Interceltique de Lorient (Brittany), the Pan Celtic Festival (Ireland), CeltFest Cuba (Havana, Cuba), the National Celtic Festival (Portarlington, Australia), the Celtic Media Festival (showcasing film and television from the Celtic nations), and the Eisteddfod (Wales).[7][44][45][46]

Inter-Celtic music festivals include Celtic Connections (Glasgow), and the Hebridean Celtic Festival (Stornoway).[47][48] Due to immigration, a dialect of Scottish Gaelic (Canadian Gaelic) is spoken by some on Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia, while a Welsh-speaking minority exists in the Chubut Province of Argentina. Hence, for certain purposes—such as the Festival Interceltique de Lorient—Gallaecia, Asturias, and Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia are considered three of the nine Celtic nations.[7]

Competitions are held between the Celtic nations in sports such as rugby union (Pro14—formerly known as the Celtic League), athletics (Celtic Cup) and association football (the Nations Cup—also known as the Celtic Cup).[49][50]

The Republic of Ireland enjoyed a period of rapid economic growth between 1995–2007, leading to the use of the phrase Celtic Tiger to describe the country.[51][52] Aspirations for Scotland to achieve a similar economic performance to that of Ireland's led the Scotland First Minister Alex Salmond to set out his vision of a Celtic Lion economy for Scotland, in 2007.[53]

Terminology

Main article: Names of the Celts

The term "Celtic nations" derives from the linguistics studies of the 16th century scholar George Buchanan and the polymath Edward Lhuyd.[54] As Assistant Keeper and then Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford (1691–1709), Lhuyd travelled extensively in Great Britain, Ireland and Brittany in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Noting the similarity between the languages of Brittany, Cornwall and Wales, which he called "P-Celtic" or Brythonic, the languages of Ireland, the Isle of Man and Scotland, which he called "Q-Celtic" or Goidelic, and between the two groups, Lhuyd published Archaeologia Britannica: an Account of the Languages, Histories and Customs of Great Britain, from Travels through Wales, Cornwall, Bas-Bretagne, Ireland and Scotland in 1707. His Archaeologia Britannica concluded that all six languages derived from the same root. Lhuyd theorised that the root language descended from the languages spoken by the Iron Age tribes of Gaul, whom Greek and Roman writers called Celtic.[55] Having defined the languages of those areas as Celtic, the people living in them and speaking those languages became known as Celtic too. There is some dispute as to whether Lhuyd's theory is correct. Nevertheless, the term "Celtic" to describe the languages and peoples of Brittany, Cornwall and Wales, Ireland, the Isle of Man and Scotland was accepted from the 18th century and is widely used today.[54]

These areas of Europe are sometimes referred to as the "Celt belt" or "Celtic fringe" because of their location generally on the western edges of the continent, and of the states they inhabit (e.g. Brittany is in the northwest of France, Cornwall is in the south west of Great Britain, Wales in western Great Britain and the Gaelic-speaking parts of Ireland and Scotland are in the west of those countries).[56][57] Additionally, this region is known as the "Celtic Crescent" because of the near crescent shaped position of the nations in Europe.[58]

Territories of the ancient Celts

Main articles: Celts and List of Celtic tribes
Diachronic distribution of Celtic peoples:
  core Hallstatt territory, by the 6th century BC
  maximal Celtic expansion, by 275 BC
  Lusitanian area of Iberia where Celtic presence is uncertain
  the six Celtic nations which retained significant numbers of Celtic speakers into the Early Modern period
  areas where Celtic languages remain widely spoken today

During the European Iron Age, the ancient Celts extended their territory to most of Western and Central Europe and part of Eastern Europe and central Anatolia.

The Continental Celtic languages were extinct by the Early Middle Ages, and the continental "Celtic cultural traits", such as an oral traditions and practices like the visiting of sacred wells and springs, largely disappeared or, in some cases, were translated. Since they no longer have a living Celtic language, they are not included as 'Celtic nations'. Nonetheless, some of these countries have movements claiming a "Celtic identity"

Iberian Peninsula

Iberian Peninsula at about 200 BC.[59]
Main articles: Celtiberians, Gallaeci, Celtici, and Astures

The Iberian Peninsula was an area heavily influenced by Celtic culture, particularly the ancient region of Gallaecia (about the modern region of Galicia and Braga, Viana do Castelo, Douro, Porto, and Bragança in Portugal) and the Asturian region (Asturias, León, Zamora in Spain). Only France and Britain have more ancient Celtic place names than Spain and Portugal combined (Cunliffe and Koch 2010 and 2012).

Some of the Celtic tribes recorded in these regions by the Romans were the Gallaeci, the Bracari, the Astures, the Cantabri, the Celtici, the Celtiberi, the Tumorgogi, Albion and Cerbarci. The Lusitanians are categorised by some as Celts, or at least Celticised, but there remain inscriptions in an apparently non-Celtic Lusitanian language. However, the language had clear affinities with the Gallaecian Celtic language. Modern-day Galicians, Asturians, Cantabrians and northern Portuguese claim a Celtic heritage or identity.[5] Although the Celtic cultural traces are as difficult to analyse as in the other former Celtic countries of Europe, because of the extinction of Iberian Celtic languages in Roman times, Celtic heritage is attested in toponymics and language substratum, ancient texts, folklore and music.[5][60] At the end, late Celtic influence is also attributed to the fifth century Romano-Briton colony of Britonia in Galicia.

Tenth century Middle Irish mythical history Lebor Gabála Érenn (Irish: Leabhar Gabhála Éireann) credited Gallaecia as the point from where the Gallaic Celts sailed to conquer Ireland.

England

Principal sites in Roman Britain, with indication of the Celtic tribes.

In Celtic languages, England is usually referred to as "Saxon-land" (Sasana, Pow Sows, Bro-Saoz etc.), and in Welsh as Lloegr (though the Welsh translation of English also refers to the Saxon route: Saesneg, with the English people being referred to as "Saeson", or "Saes" in the singular). The mildly derogatory Scottish Gaelic term Sassenach derives from this source. However, spoken Cumbric survived until approximately the 12th century, Cornish until the 18th century, and Welsh within the Welsh Marches, notably in Archenfield, now part of Herefordshire, until the 19th century. Both Cumbria and Cornwall were traditionally Brythonic in culture. Cornwall existed as an independent state for some time after the foundation of England, and Cumbria originally retained a great deal of autonomy within the Kingdom of Northumbria. The unification of the Anglian kingdom of Northumbria with the Cumbric kingdom of Cumbria came about due to a political marriage between the Northumbrian King Oswiu and Queen Riemmelth (Rhiainfellt in Old Welsh), a then Princess of Rheged.

Movements of population between different parts of Great Britain over the last two centuries, with industrial development and changes in living patterns such as the growth of second home ownership, have greatly modified the demographics of these areas, including the Isles of Scilly off the coast of Cornwall, although Cornwall in particular retains unique cultural features, and a Cornish self-government movement is well established.[61]

Brythonic and Cumbric placenames are found throughout England but are more common in the West of England than the East, reaching their highest density in the traditionally Celtic areas of Cornwall, Cumbria and the areas of England bordering Wales. Name elements containing Brythonic topographic words occur in many areas of England, such as: caer 'fort', as in the Cumbrian city of Carlisle; pen 'hill' as in the Cumbrian town of Penrith and Pendle Hill in Lancashire; afon 'river' as in the Rivers Avon in Warwickshire, Devon and Somerset; and mynydd 'mountain', as in Long Mynd in Shropshire. The name 'Cumbria' is derived from the same root as Cymru, the Welsh name for Wales, meaning 'the land of comrades'.

Formerly Gaulish regions

Repartition of Gaul ca. 54 BC

Most French people identify with the ancient Gauls and are well aware that they were a people that spoke Celtic languages and lived Celtic ways of life.[62] Nowadays, the popular nickname Gaulois, "Gaulish people", is very often used to mean 'stock French people' to make the difference with the descendants of foreigners in France.

Walloons occasionally characterise themselves as "Celts", mainly in opposition to the "Teutonic" Flemish and "Latin" French identities.[63] Others think they are Belgian, that is to say Germano-Celtic people different from the Gaulish-Celtic French.[63]

The ethnonym "Walloon" derives from a Germanic word meaning "foreign", cognate with the words "Welsh" and "Vlach". The name of Belgium, home country of the Walloon people, is cognate with the Celtic tribal names Belgae and (possibly) the Irish legendary Fir Bolg.

Italian Peninsula

Main articles: Canegrate culture, Golasecca culture, Este culture, Cisalpine Gaul, and Lepontii

The Canegrate culture (13th century BC) may represent the first migratory wave of the proto-Celtic[64] population from the northwest part of the Alps that, through the Alpine passes, had already penetrated and settled in the western Po valley between Lake Maggiore and Lake Como (Scamozzina culture). It has also been proposed that a more ancient proto-Celtic presence can be traced back to the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age (16th-15th century BC), when North Westwern Italy appears closely linked regarding the production of bronze artifacts, including ornaments, to the western groups of the Tumulus culture (Central Europe, 1600 BC - 1200 BC).[65] La Tène cultural material appeared over a large area of mainland Italy,[66] the southernmost example being the Celtic helmet from Canosa di Puglia.[67]

Italy is home to the Lepontic, the oldest attested Celtic language (from the 6th century BC).[68] Anciently spoken in Switzerland and in Northern-Central Italy, from the Alps to Umbria.[69][70][71][72] According to the Recueil des Inscriptions Gauloises, more than 760 Gaulish inscriptions have been found throughout present-day France—with the notable exception of Aquitaine—and in Italy,[73][74] which testifies the importance of Celtic heritage in the peninsula.

The French- and Arpitan-speaking Aosta Valley region in Italy also presents a claim of Celtic heritage.[75] The Northern League autonomist party often exalts what it claims are the Celtic roots of all Northern Italy or Padania.[76] Reportedly, Friuli also has a claim to Celticity (recent studies have estimated that about 1/10 of Friulian words are of Celtic origin; also, a lot of typical Friulian traditions, dances, songs and mythology are remnants of the culture of Carnian tribes who lived in this area during the Roman age and the early Middle Ages. Some Friulians consider themselves and their region as one of the Celtic Nations[77])

Central and Eastern European regions

Celtic tribes inhabited land in what is now southern Germany and Austria.[78] Many scholars have associated the earliest Celtic peoples with the Hallstatt culture.[79] The Boii, the Scordisci,[80] and the Vindelici[81] are some of the tribes that inhabited Central Europe, including what is now Slovakia, Serbia, Croatia, Poland and the Czech Republic as well as Germany and Austria. The Boii gave their name to Bohemia.[82] The Boii founded a city on the site of modern Prague, and some of its ruins are now a tourist attraction.[83] There are claims among modern Czechs that the Czech people are as much descendants of the Boii as they are from the later Slavic invaders (as well as the historical Germanic peoples of Czech lands). This claim may not only be political: according to a 2000 study by Semino, 35.6% of Czech males have y-chromosome haplogroup R1b,[84] which is common among Celts but rare among Slavs. Celts also founded Singidunum near present-day Belgrade, though the Celtic presence in modern-day Serbian regions is limited to the far north (mainly including the historically at least partially Hungarian Vojvodina). The modern-day capital of Turkey, Ankara, was once the center of the Celtic culture in Central Anatolia, giving the name to the region—Galatia. The La Tène culture—named for a region in modern Switzerland—succeeded the Halstatt era in much of central Europe.[85]

Celtic diaspora

Main article: Celts (modern) § Migration from Celtic countries
Further information: Cornish diaspora, Irish diaspora, Scottish people § Scottish ancestry abroad, and Welsh people § Welsh emigration

In other regions, people with a heritage from one of the Celtic nations also associate with the Celtic identity. In these areas, Celtic traditions and languages are significant components of local culture. These include the Permanent North American Gaeltacht in Tamworth, Ontario, Canada which is the only Irish Gaeltacht outside Ireland; the Chubut valley of Patagonia with Welsh-speaking Welsh Argentines (known as Y Wladfa); Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia, with Scottish Gaelic-speaking Scottish Canadians; and southeast Newfoundland with traditionally Irish-speaking Irish Canadians. Also at one point in the 1900s there were well over 12,000 Gaelic Scots from the Isle of Lewis living in the Eastern Townships of Quebec, Canada, with place names that still exist today recalling those inhabitants.

Saint John, New Brunswick has often been called "Canada's Irish City". In the years between 1815, when vast industrial changes began to disrupt the old life-styles in Europe, and Canadian Confederation in 1867, when immigration of that era passed its peak, more than 150,000 immigrants from Ireland flooded into Saint John. Those who came in the earlier period were largely tradesmen, and many stayed in Saint John, becoming the backbone of its builders. But when the Great Irish Potato Famine raged between 1845-1852, huge waves of Famine refugees flooded these shores. It is estimated that between 1845 and 1847, some 30,000 arrived, more people than were living in the city at the time. In 1847, dubbed "Black 47," one of the worst years of the Famine, some 16,000 immigrants, most of them from Ireland, arrived at Partridge Island, the immigration and quarantine station at the mouth of Saint John Harbour. However, thousands of Irish were living in New Brunswick prior to these events, mainly in Saint John.[86]

Celtic Cross of Partridge Island

After the partitioning of the British colony of Nova Scotia in 1784 New Brunswick was originally named New Ireland with the capital to be in Saint John.[87]

Large swathes of the United States of America were subject to migration from Celtic peoples, or people from Celtic nations. Irish-speaking Irish Catholics congregated particularly in the East Coast cities of New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, and also in Pittsburgh and Chicago, while Scots and Ulster-Scots were particularly prominent in the Southern United States, including Appalachia.

A legend that became popular during the Elizabethan era claims that a Welsh prince named Madoc established a colony in North America in the late 12th century. The story continues that the settlers merged with local Indian tribes, who preserved the Welsh language and the Christian religion for hundreds of years.[88] However, there is no contemporary evidence that Prince Madoc existed. An area of Pennsylvania known as the Welsh Tract was settled by Welsh Quakers, where the names of several towns still bear Welsh names, such as Bryn Mawr, the Lower and Upper Gwynedd Townships, and Bala Cynwyd. In the 19th century, Welsh settlers arrived in the Chubut River valley of Patagonia, Argentina and established a colony called Y Wladfa (Spanish: Colonia Galesa). Today, the Welsh language and Welsh tea houses are common in several towns, many of which have Welsh names. Dolavon and Trelew are examples of Welsh towns.

In his autobiography, the South African poet Roy Campbell recalled his youth in the Dargle Valley, near the city of Pietermaritzburg, where people spoke only Gaelic and Zulu.

In New Zealand, the southern regions of Otago and Southland were settled by the Free Church of Scotland. Many of the place names in these two regions (such as the main cities of Dunedin and Invercargill and the major river, the Clutha) have Scottish Gaelic names,[89] and Celtic culture is still prominent in this area.[90][91][92]

In addition to these, a number of people from Canada, the United States, Australia, South Africa and other parts of the former British Empire have formed various Celtic societies over the years.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Koch, John (2005). Celtic Culture : A Historical Encyclopedia. ABL-CIO. pp. xx, 300, 421, 495, 512, 583, 985. ISBN 978-1-85109-440-0. Retrieved 24 November 2011. 
  2. ^ "Constitution of the League". The Celtic League. 2015. Retrieved 6 January 2015. 
  3. ^ Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 365. ISBN 9781851094400. Retrieved 2 March 2011. 
  4. ^ a b Ian Johnston (21 September 2006). "We're nearly all Celts under the skin". The Scotsman. Retrieved 2007-11-24. 
  5. ^ a b c d e f Alberro, Manuel (2005). "Celtic Legacy in Galicia". E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies. 6: 1005–1035. 
  6. ^ Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 365, 697, 788–791. ISBN 9781851094400. Retrieved 2 March 2011. 
  7. ^ a b c "Site Officiel du Festival Interceltique de Lorient". Festival Interceltique de Lorient website. Festival Interceltique de Lorient. 2009. Archived from the original on 5 March 2010. Retrieved 2009-05-15. 
  8. ^ Massive migration from the steppe is a source for Indo-European languages in Europe, Haak et al, 2015
  9. ^ Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia, Allentoft et al, 2015
  10. ^ Eight thousand years of natural selection in Europe, Mathieson et al, 2015
  11. ^ Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 34, 365–366, 529, 973, 1053. ISBN 9781851094400. Retrieved 15 June 2010. 
  12. ^ Beresford Ellis, Peter (1990). The Story of the Cornish Language. Tor Mark Press. pp. 20–22. ISBN 0-85025-371-3. 
  13. ^ "Fockle ny ghaa: schoolchildren take charge". Iomtoday.co.im. 20 March 2008. Archived from the original on 4 July 2009. Retrieved 30 September 2013. 
  14. ^ "www.breizh.net/icdbl/saozg/Celtic_Languages.pdf" (PDF). Breizh.net website. U.S. Branch of the International Committee for the Defense of the Breton Language. 1995. Retrieved 2008-10-26. 
  15. ^ "BBC Wales – The School Gate – About School – The Curriculum at Primary School –". BBC website. BBC. 20 February 2010. Archived from the original on 28 August 2009. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  16. ^ a b "BBC News:Education:Local UK languages 'taking off'". BBC News website. BBC. 12 February 2009. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  17. ^ "Les nations celtes". 43e Festival Interceltique de Lorient (in French). Archived from the original on 12 June 2011. 
  18. ^ Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781851094400. 
  19. ^ Koch, John T. (2006). "Britonia". In John T. Koch, Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, p. 291.
  20. ^ a b Language: Irish Gaelic, Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage website.
  21. ^ Statistics Canada, NHS Profile 2011, by province.
  22. ^ Statistics Canada, 2011 Census of Canada, Table: Detailed mother tongue
  23. ^ Western Mail (Cardiff, Wales). 27 Dec 2004. Patagonia Welsh to watch S4C shows. Archived 17 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
  24. ^ "Wales and Patagonia". Wales.com website. Welsh Assembly Government. 2015. Retrieved 25 October 2015. 
  25. ^ The 2011 population of the Republic of Ireland was 4,588,252 and that of Northern Ireland in 2011 was 1,810,863. These are Census data from the official governmental statistics agencies in the respective jurisdictions:
  26. ^ "Central Statistics Office Ireland". Cso.ie. Retrieved 2013-09-30. 
  27. ^ The figure for Northern Ireland from the 2001 Census is somewhat ambiguous, as it covers people who have "some knowledge of Irish". Out of the 167,487 people who claimed to have "some knowledge", 36,479 of them could understand it when spoken, but couldn't speak it themselves.
  28. ^ "Mixed report on Gaelic language". BBC News. 2005-10-10. Retrieved 2013-09-30. 
  29. ^ Kenneth MacKinnon (2003). "Census 2001 Scotland: Gaelic Language – first results". Archived from the original on 4 September 2006. Retrieved 24 March 2007. 
  30. ^ a b (in French) Données clés sur Breton, Ofis ar Brezhoneg
  31. ^ "2004 Welsh Language Use Survey: the report – Welsh Language Board". Archived from the original on 2011-05-24. Retrieved 2010-05-23. 
  32. ^ United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. "Refworld World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – United Kingdom : Welsh". UNHCR. Retrieved 2010-05-23. 
  33. ^ "Wales and Argentina". Wales.com website. Welsh Assembly Government. 2008. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 2 January 2011. 
  34. ^ "Table 1. Detailed Languages Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 Years and Over for the United States: 2006–2008 Release Date: April, 2010" (xls). United States Census Bureau. 27 April 2010. Retrieved 2 January 2011. 
  35. ^ "2006 Census of Canada: Topic based tabulations: Various Languages Spoken (147), Age Groups (17A) and Sex (3) for the Population of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2006 Census – 20% Sample Data". Statistics Canada. 7 December 2010. Retrieved 3 January 2011. 
  36. ^ "Publication of the report on the 2004 Welsh Language Use Survey". Welsh Language Board website An increase from the 2001 census results: 582,368 persons age 3 and over were able to speak Welsh – 20.8% of the population. Welsh Language Board. 8 May 2006. Archived from the original on 31 July 2012. Retrieved 4 April 2010. 
  37. ^ "'South West:TeachingEnglish:British Council:BBC". BBC/British Council website. BBC. 2010. Archived from the original on 8 January 2010. Retrieved 20 February 2010. 
  38. ^ projects.ex.ac.uk – On being a Cornish ‘Celt’: changing Celtic heritage and traditions Archived 18 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
  39. ^ Effectively extinct as a spoken language in 1777. Language revived from 1904, though a tiny 0.1% percent is able to hold a limited conversion in Cornish.
  40. ^ a b c "Isle of Man Census 2011" (PDF). Isle of Man Government. Retrieved 17 October 2014. 
  41. ^ "An English-Cornish Glossary in the Standard Written Form". Retrieved 2013-09-30. 
  42. ^ "The Celtic League". Celtic League website. The Celtic League. 2010. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  43. ^ "Information on The International Celtic Congress Douglas, Isle of Man hosted by". Celtic Congress website (in Irish and English). Celtic Congress. 2010. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  44. ^ "Welcome to the Pan Celtic 2010 Home Page". Pan Celtic Festival 2010 website. Fáilte Ireland. 2010. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  45. ^ "About the Festival". National Celtic Festival website. National Celtic Festival. 2009. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  46. ^ "About Us::Celtic Media Festival". Celtic Media Festival website. Celtic Media Festival. 2009. Archived from the original on 26 January 2010. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  47. ^ "Celtic connections:Scotland's premier winter music festival". Celtic connections website. Celtic Connections. 2010. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  48. ^ "'Hebridean Celtic Festival 2010 – the biggest homecoming party of the year". Hebridean Celtic Festival website. Hebridean Celtic Festival. 2009. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  49. ^ "Magners League:About Us:Contact Information". Magners League website. Celtic League. 2009. Archived from the original on 3 August 2009. Retrieved 20 February 2010. 
  50. ^ "scottishathletics-news". scottishathletics website. scottishathletics. 14 June 2006. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  51. ^ Coulter, Colin; Coleman, Steve (2003). The end of Irish history?: critical reflections on the Celtic tiger. Google Books. Manchester: Manchester University Press. p. 83. ISBN 0-7190-6230-6. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  52. ^ ""Celtic Tiger" No More – CBS Evening News – CBS News". CBS News website. CBS Interactive. 7 March 2009. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  53. ^ "BBC News:Scotland:Salmond gives Celtic Lion vision". BBC News website. BBC. 12 October 2007. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  54. ^ a b "Who were the Celts? ... Rhagor". Amgueddfa Cymru – National Museum Wales website. Amgueddfa Cymru – National Museum Wales. 4 May 2007. Retrieved 2009-12-10. 
  55. ^ Lhuyd, Edward (1707). Archaeologia Britannica: an Account of the Languages, Histories and Customs of Great Britain, from Travels through Wales, Cornwall, Bas-Bretagne, Ireland and Scotland. Google Books. Oxford. 
  56. ^ Nathalie Koble, Jeunesse et genèse du royaume arthurien, Paradigme, 2007, ISBN 2-86878-270-1, p.145
  57. ^ The term "Celtic Fringe" gained currency in late-Victorian years (Thomas Heyck, A History of the Peoples of the British Isles: From 1870 to Present, Routledge, 2002, ISBN 0-415-30233-1, p.43) and is now widely attested, e.g. Michael Hechter, Internal Colonialism: The Celtic Fringe in British National Development, Transaction Publishers, 1999, ISBN 0-7658-0475-1; Nicholas Hooper and Matthew Bennett, England and the Celtic Fringe: Colonial Warfare in The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare, Cambridge University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-521-44049-1
  58. ^ Ian Hazlett, The Reformation in Britain and Ireland, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2003, ISBN 0-567-08280-6, p.21
  59. ^ "Ethnographic Map of Pre-Roman Iberia (circa 200 b". Arkeotavira.com. Retrieved 2013-09-30. 
  60. ^ Melhuish, Martin (1998). Celtic Tides: Traditional Music in a New Age. Ontario, Canada: Quarry Press Inc. p. 28. ISBN 1-55082-205-5. 
  61. ^ The Kingdom of Kernow 'exists apart from England' – Telegraph.co.uk, 29 January 2010
  62. ^ "What Is France? Who Are the French?". Archived from the original on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 15 May 2010. 
  63. ^ a b "Belgium: Flemings, Walloons and Germans". Retrieved 15 May 2010. 
  64. ^ Venceslas Kruta: La grande storia dei celti. La nascita, l'affermazione e la decadenza, Newton & Compton, 2003, ISBN 88-8289-851-2, ISBN 978-88-8289-851-9
  65. ^ "The Golasecca civilization is therefore the expression of the oldest Celts of Italy and included several groups that had the name of Insubres, Laevi, Lepontii, Oromobii (o Orumbovii)". (Raffaele C. De Marinis)
  66. ^ "Manufatti in ferro di tipo La Tène in area italiana : le potenzialità non sfruttate". 
  67. ^ Piggott, Stuart (6 May 2008). Early Celtic Art From Its Origins to its Aftermath. Transaction Publishers. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-202-36186-4. 
  68. ^ Schumacher, Stefan; Schulze-Thulin, Britta; aan de Wiel, Caroline (2004). Die keltischen Primärverben. Ein vergleichendes, etymologisches und morphologisches Lexikon (in German). Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachen und Kulturen der Universität Innsbruck. pp. 84–87. ISBN 3-85124-692-6. 
  69. ^ Percivaldi, Elena (2003). I Celti: una civiltà europea. Giunti Editore. p. 82. 
  70. ^ Kruta, Venceslas (1991). The Celts. Thames and Hudson. p. 55. 
  71. ^ Stifter, David (2008). Old Celtic Languages (PDF). p. 12. 
  72. ^ MORANDI 2004, pp. 702-703, n. 277
  73. ^ Peter Schrijver, "Gaulish", in Encyclopedia of the Languages of Europe, ed. Glanville Price (Oxford: Blackwell, 1998), 192.
  74. ^ Landolfi, Maurizio (2000). Adriatico tra 4. e 3. sec. a.C. L'ERMA di BRETSCHNEIDER. p. 43. 
  75. ^ "Aosta Festival digs up Celtic roots in Italy". Retrieved 15 May 2010. 
  76. ^ "Celtica Festival 2009, Northern Italy". Retrieved 15 May 2010. 
  77. ^ "KurMor Celtic Festival in Ara, Udine, Friuli, Italy". Retrieved 15 May 2010. 
  78. ^ "Celts – Hallstatt and La Tene cultures". Celts.etrusia.co.uk. 2005-10-21. Retrieved 2013-09-30. 
  79. ^ Celtic Impressions – The Celts Archived 24 January 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
  80. ^ AncientWorlds.net Archived 7 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine., 27k
  81. ^ authorName. "Vindelici". Ancientworlds.net. Archived from the original on 26 February 2012. Retrieved 30 September 2013. 
  82. ^ "Boii – Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2013-09-30. 
  83. ^ "Prague Celtic History Remains Route Celtic Walk in Prague". Prague.net. Retrieved 2013-09-30. 
  84. ^ O. Semino et al., The genetic legacy of paleolithic Homo sapiens sapiens in extant Europeans: a Y chromosome perspective, Science, vol. 290 (2000), pp. 1155–59.
  85. ^ "The Early Celts". Angelfire.com. Retrieved 2013-09-30. 
  86. ^ "Trouble in the North End: The Geography of Social Violence in Saint John 1840-1860". Retrieved 23 September 2017. 
  87. ^ "Winslow Papers: The Partition of Nova Scotia". lib.unb.ca. 
  88. ^ Catlin, G. Die Indianer Nordamerikas Verlag Lothar Borowsky
  89. ^ "Encyclopedia of New Zealand". Te Ara. 2012-07-13. Retrieved 2013-09-30. 
  90. ^ Lewis, John (1 December 2008). "Regal poise amid 'Celtic' clime". Otago Daily Times. Retrieved 23 September 2011. 
  91. ^ "DunedinCelticArts.org.nz". DunedinCelticArts.org.nz. Archived from the original on 3 October 2013. Retrieved 30 September 2013. 
  92. ^ "OtagoCaledonian.org". OtagoCaledonian.org. Archived from the original on 6 August 2012. Retrieved 30 September 2013. 

Further reading

External links

Retrieved from "