Byzantine Sardinia
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The Byzantine age in
Sardinia Sardinia ( ; it, Sardegna, label=Italian, Corsican and Tabarchino ; sc, Sardigna , sdc, Sardhigna; french: Sardaigne; sdn, Saldigna; ca, Sardenya, label=Algherese and Catalan) is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after ...
n history conventionally begins with the island's reconquest by
Justinian I Justinian I (; la, Iustinianus, ; grc-gre, Ἰουστινιανός ; 48214 November 565), also known as Justinian the Great, was the Byzantine emperor from 527 to 565. His reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realized ''renovat ...
in 534. This ended the
Vandal The Vandals were a Germanic people who first inhabited what is now southern Poland. They established Vandal kingdoms on the Iberian Peninsula, Mediterranean islands, and North Africa in the fifth century. The Vandals migrated to the area betw ...
dominion of the island after about 80 years. There was still a substantial continuity with the Roman phase at this time. The invasion of Italy by the
Longobards The Lombards () or Langobards ( la, Langobardi) were a Germanic people who ruled most of the Italian Peninsula from 568 to 774. The medieval Lombard historian Paul the Deacon wrote in the ''History of the Lombards'' (written between 787 and ...
in 568, which changed the face of Italy, only resulted in a few coastal raids on Sardinia.


Administration

The
Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
was an autocratic state, with its administration centralised around the Emperor. In addition to being the chief of the army he also had authority in the Church, often appointing the Ecumenical Patriarch. Following the Byzantine reconquest, Sardinia was part of the praetorian prefecture of Africa. The province of Sardinia was ruled by a '' praeses provinciae'', also known as the ''
iudex A judge is a person who presides over court proceedings, either alone or as a part of a panel of judges. A judge hears all the witnesses and any other evidence presented by the barristers or solicitors of the case, assesses the credibility an ...
provinciae'', based in Cagliari. A ''
dux ''Dux'' (; plural: ''ducēs'') is Latin for "leader" (from the noun ''dux, ducis'', "leader, general") and later for duke and its variant forms (doge, duce, etc.). During the Roman Republic and for the first centuries of the Roman Empire, '' ...
'' was responsible for military matters and was based at
Fordongianus Fordongianus, ( sc, Fordongianis) (Ancient Greek: ''Hydata Hypsitana'', la, Aquae Hypsitanae or ''Forum Trajani'',Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a letter ...
times had been a fortified bastion against the inhabitants of the
Barbagia Barbagia (; sc, Barbàgia or ) is a geographical, cultural and natural region of inner Sardinia, contained for the most part in the province of Nuoro and Ogliastra and located alongside the Gennargentu massif. The name comes from Cicero, wh ...
. These two most important offices, ''iudex'' and ''dux'', were unified in the 7th century. To allow for control of the routes that crossed the
Tyrrhenian Sea The Tyrrhenian Sea (; it, Mar Tirreno , french: Mer Tyrrhénienne , sc, Mare Tirrenu, co, Mari Tirrenu, scn, Mari Tirrenu, nap, Mare Tirreno) is part of the Mediterranean Sea off the western coast of Italy. It is named for the Tyrrhenian pe ...
, the island was also home to a squadron of the
Byzantine fleet The Byzantine navy was the naval force of the East Roman or Byzantine Empire. Like the empire it served, it was a direct continuation from its Imperial Roman predecessor, but played a far greater role in the defence and survival of the state tha ...
. Units of the Byzantine field army, the ''
comitatenses The comitatenses and later the palatini were the units of the field armies of the late Roman Empire. They were the soldiers that replaced the legionaries, who had formed the backbone of the Roman military since the Marian reforms. Organizati ...
'', were based at Fordongianus. Along the border with the Barbagia region were fortresses such as those at
Austis Austis ( la, Augustae, sc, Aùstis) is a ''comune'' (municipality) in the Province of Nuoro in the Italian region Sardinia, located about north of Cagliari and about southwest of Nuoro. Austis borders the following municipalities: Neoneli, Nu ...
,
Samugheo Samugheo is a ''comune'' (municipality) in the Province of Oristano in the Italian region Sardinia, located about north of Cagliari and about east of Oristano. Samugheo borders the following municipalities: Allai, Asuni, Atzara, Busachi, ...
,
Nuragus Nuragus (Latin: Valentia) is a small town, in administrative terms a ''comune'' (municipality), in the Province of South Sardinia in the Italian autonomous region of Sardinia, located about north of the local capital Cagliari. Nuragus borders ...
and
Armungia Armungia, Armùngia in sardinian language, is a ''comune'' (municipality) in the Province of South Sardinia in the Italian region Sardinia, located about northeast of Cagliari. Armungia borders the following municipalities: Ballao, San Nicolò ...
. Soldiers of different origins (
Germanic peoples The Germanic peoples were historical groups of people that once occupied Central Europe and Scandinavia during antiquity and into the early Middle Ages. Since the 19th century, they have traditionally been defined by the use of ancient and ear ...
,
Balkan The Balkans ( ), also known as the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throughout the who ...
peoples,
Longobards The Lombards () or Langobards ( la, Langobardi) were a Germanic people who ruled most of the Italian Peninsula from 568 to 774. The medieval Lombard historian Paul the Deacon wrote in the ''History of the Lombards'' (written between 787 and ...
and Avars among others), called ''
limitanei The ''līmitāneī'' (Latin, also called ''rīpēnsēs''), meaning respectively "the soldiers in frontier districts" (from the Latin phrase līmēs, meaning a military district of a frontier province) or "the soldiers on the riverbank" (from the ...
'' (border troops), were garrisoned here. Some of the island's garrison soldiers were ''caballarii'' (horsemen) and received in compensation for their military services land parcels to farm. In the countryside there continued to be the great estates, but also smaller properties and common lands. The rural population consisted of both free people (the ''possessors'') and slaves, mostly living in villages ( vici). They worked the private and community lands with hoes and nail plows, grazed livestock and fished. Extensive vineyards were cultivated but there seemed to have been few orchards.


End of Byzantine rule

Sardinia was initially constituted as a ''ducatus'' (duchy) within the
Exarchate of Africa The Exarchate of Africa was a division of the Byzantine Empire around Carthage that encompassed its possessions on the Western Mediterranean. Ruled by an exarch (viceroy), it was established by the Emperor Maurice in the late 580s and survive ...
. After the fall of the African Exarchate in the 7th century, caused by the Arab conquest of Carthage, the ''ducatus'' was directly dependent on
Constantinople la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه , alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
. It became then an '' archontate''; that is, a region with the same characteristics of a ''
theme Theme or themes may refer to: * Theme (arts), the unifying subject or idea of the type of visual work * Theme (Byzantine district), an administrative district in the Byzantine Empire governed by a Strategos * Theme (computing), a custom graphical ...
'' but smaller and less rich. The governors of the island originally held the rank of ''
hypatos ''Hypatos'' ( gr, ὕπατος; plural: , ''hypatoi'') and the variant ''apo hypatōn'' (, "former ''hypatos''", literally: "from among the consuls") was a Byzantine court dignity, originally the Greek translation of Latin ''consul'' (the litera ...
'' and later that of ''
protospatharios ''Prōtospatharios'' ( el, πρωτοσπαθάριος) was one of the highest court dignities of the middle Byzantine period (8th to 12th centuries), awarded to senior generals and provincial governors, as well as to foreign princes. History Th ...
'', before receiving the title of ''
patrikios The patricians (from la, patricius, Greek: πατρίκιος) were originally a group of ruling class families in ancient Rome. The distinction was highly significant in the Roman Kingdom, and the early Republic, but its relevance waned after ...
'' from the middle of the ninth century. At this time the relations with Byzantium, if not completely interrupted, had become intermittent, however.Ortu, Gian Giacomo (2005) ''La Sardegna dei Giudici'' p.45-46 Due to
Saracen upright 1.5, Late 15th-century German woodcut depicting Saracens Saracen ( ) was a term used in the early centuries, both in Greek and Latin writings, to refer to the people who lived in and near what was designated by the Romans as Arabia Pe ...
attacks, in the 9th century
Tharros Tharros (also spelled Tharras, Archaic Greek: , Hellenistic Greek, Tarras or Tarrae, Τάρραι) was an ancient city and former bishopric on the west coast of Sardinia, Italy. It is currently a Latin Catholic titular see and an archaeologica ...
was abandoned in favor of
Oristano Oristano (; sc, Aristanis ) is an Italian city and ''comune'', and capital of the Province of Oristano in the central-western part of the island of Sardinia. It is located on the northern part of the Campidano plain. It was established as the pr ...
, after more than 1,800 years of human occupation while
Caralis Cagliari (, also , , ; sc, Casteddu ; lat, Caralis) is an Italian municipality and the capital of the island of Sardinia, an autonomous region of Italy. Cagliari's Sardinian name ''Casteddu'' means ''castle''. It has about 155,000 inhabitant ...
was abandoned in favor of
Santa Igia Santa Igia or Santa Ilia, modern Santa Gilla lagoon (''Santa Ilia'' being a contraction of ''Santa Cecilia''Corrado Zedda; p. 121.), was a city in Sardinia, in what is now Italy, which existed from the 9th century AD to 1258, when it was destroyed ...
. Numerous other coastal centres suffered the same fate (Nora, Sulci, Bithia, Cornus, Bosa, and Olbia among others). Contacts between Sardinia and the Byzantine empire didn't cease, however, as suggested by the mention of Sardinian imperial guards in Constantine VII's work ''De Caereimoniis'' (956–959 AD). The Sardinian ''
archon ''Archon'' ( gr, ἄρχων, árchōn, plural: ἄρχοντες, ''árchontes'') is a Greek word that means "ruler", frequently used as the title of a specific public office. It is the masculine present participle of the verb stem αρχ-, mean ...
'' had both military and civil functions. During the period of direct Byzantine rule, these were delegated to two different officers, the ''dux'' and the ''praeses''. The office of ''archon'' became the prerogative of a specific family who transmitted the title in succession from father to a son. At the beginning of the 11th century there was a single ''archon'' for the whole island. This situation changed over the following decades. The first unequivocal attestation of four separate kingdoms in Sardinia is the letter sent on October14, 1073 by Pope Gregory VII (1073–1085) to Orzocco of Cagliari, Orzocco d'Arborea, Marianus of Torres, and Constantine of Gallura. During the early
Giudicati The Judicates (, or in Sardinian, in Latin, or in Italian), in English also referred to as Sardinian Kingdoms, Sardinian Judgedoms or Judicatures, were independent states that took power in Sardinia in the Middle Ages, between the ninth an ...
era, the
Judicate of Cagliari The Judicate of Cagliari ( sc, Judicadu de Càralis / Càlaris, it, Giudicato di Cagliari) was one of the four Sardinian ''judicates'' of the Middle Ages, kingdoms of Byzantine origins. The Judicate of Cagliari covered the entire south and centra ...
was a direct descendant of the former Archontate of Sardinia. It helped many Byzantine institutions, including the
Byzantine Greek Medieval Greek (also known as Middle Greek, Byzantine Greek, or Romaic) is the stage of the Greek language between the end of classical antiquity in the 5th–6th centuries and the end of the Middle Ages, conventionally dated to the Ottoman co ...
language, to survive.''Le iscrizioni greco-bizantine''
SardegnaCultura.it
By the end of the century Greek had been supplanted by
Medieval Latin Medieval Latin was the form of Literary Latin used in Roman Catholic Western Europe during the Middle Ages. In this region it served as the primary written language, though local languages were also written to varying degrees. Latin functioned ...
and Sardinian.


Religion

The Sardinian Church followed the Eastern Rite, in which baptism and confirmation were imparted together. Baptism was carried out by submersion in tanks where water came to the knees of the catechumens. Similar baptismal tanks are found in
Tharros Tharros (also spelled Tharras, Archaic Greek: , Hellenistic Greek, Tarras or Tarrae, Τάρραι) was an ancient city and former bishopric on the west coast of Sardinia, Italy. It is currently a Latin Catholic titular see and an archaeologica ...
,
Dolianova Dolianova ( sc, Patiolla) is an Italian town and ''comune'' in the province of South Sardinia, Sardinia. The town was born on 25 June 1905 from the fusion of two centers: Sicci San Biagio and San Pantaleo. Its economy is based on agriculture (wine ...
,
Nurachi Nurachi is a ''comune'' (municipality) in the Province of Oristano in the Italian region Sardinia, located about northwest of Cagliari and about northwest of Oristano. As of 31 December 2004, it had a population of 1,671 and an area of .All demog ...
,
Cornus ''Cornus'' is a genus of about 30–60 species of woody plants in the family Cornaceae, commonly known as dogwoods, which can generally be distinguished by their blossoms, berries, and distinctive bark. Most are deciduous trees or shrub ...
and Fordongianus. Alongside the secular clergy operated the
Basilian monks Basilian monks are Roman Catholic monks who follow the rule of Basil the Great, bishop of Caesarea (330–379). The term 'Basilian' is typically used only in the Catholic Church to distinguish Greek Catholic monks from other forms of monastic li ...
, who spread
Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
in Barbagia. In the Byzantine period several
cross-in-square A cross-in-square or crossed-dome plan was the dominant architectural form of middle- and late-period Byzantine churches. It featured a square centre with an internal structure shaped like a cross, topped by a dome. The first cross-in-square chu ...
churches were erected, with the four arms around a domed roof over their junction.


Chronology

* 534 Conquest of Sardinia by Justinian * 552 Very short occupation of Sardinia by the
Ostrogoths The Ostrogoths ( la, Ostrogothi, Austrogothi) were a Roman-era Germanic peoples, Germanic people. In the 5th century, they followed the Visigoths in creating one of the two great Goths, Gothic kingdoms within the Roman Empire, based upon the larg ...
of
Totila Totila, original name Baduila (died 1 July 552), was the penultimate King of the Ostrogoths, reigning from 541 to 552 AD. A skilled military and political leader, Totila reversed the tide of the Gothic War, recovering by 543 almost all the t ...
. * 565–578
Justin II Justin II ( la, Iustinus; grc-gre, Ἰουστῖνος, Ioustînos; died 5 October 578) or Justin the Younger ( la, Iustinus minor) was Eastern Roman Emperor from 565 until 578. He was the nephew of Justinian I and the husband of Sophia, the ...
succeeds
Justinian I Justinian I (; la, Iustinianus, ; grc-gre, Ἰουστινιανός ; 48214 November 565), also known as Justinian the Great, was the Byzantine emperor from 527 to 565. His reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realized ''renovat ...
. Better tax policy. * 590–604 Pontificate of
Pope Gregory I Pope Gregory I ( la, Gregorius I; – 12 March 604), commonly known as Saint Gregory the Great, was the bishop of Rome from 3 September 590 to his death. He is known for instigating the first recorded large-scale mission from Rome, the Gregori ...
. Letter to the ''dux Barbaricinorum''
Hospito Hospito (''Hospiton'' in Latin, ''Ospitone'' in Sardinian) was a Sardinian chief of Barbagia (''dux Barbaricinorum'') who converted to Christianity in the late sixth century. Gregory the Great, in a letter dated to 594, commended Hospito for his C ...
for the conversion of the
Barbagia Barbagia (; sc, Barbàgia or ) is a geographical, cultural and natural region of inner Sardinia, contained for the most part in the province of Nuoro and Ogliastra and located alongside the Gennargentu massif. The name comes from Cicero, wh ...
ns. * 594 Peace between the Byzantines and the Barbagians. * 599 A Longobard attack on the coast of Cagliari is defeated. * 603 The papal envoy Vitale is commissioned by the Sardinians to go to Emperor
Phocas Phocas ( la, Focas; grc-gre, Φωκάς, Phōkás; 5475 October 610) was Eastern Roman emperor from 602 to 610. Initially, a middle-ranking officer in the Eastern Roman army, Phocas rose to prominence as a spokesman for dissatisfied soldiers ...
to demand a reduction in the tax burden. * 642 Beginning of the
Muslim conquest of North Africa The Muslim conquest of the Maghreb ( ar, الْفَتْحُ الإسلَامِيُّ لِلْمَغرِب) continued the century of rapid Muslim conquests following the death of Muhammad in 632 and into the Byzantine-controlled territories of ...
. * 674–678
First Arab Siege of Constantinople First or 1st is the ordinal form of the number one (#1). First or 1st may also refer to: *World record, specifically the first instance of a particular achievement Arts and media Music * 1$T, American rapper, singer-songwriter, DJ, and reco ...
* 698 The conquest of Carthage is a decisive date for the occupation of North-West Africa by the
Umayyads Umayyads may refer to: *Umayyad dynasty, a Muslim ruling family of the Caliphate (661–750) and in Spain (756–1031) *Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) :*Emirate of Córdoba (756–929) :*Caliphate of Córdoba The Caliphate of Córdoba ( ar, خ ...
; start of the Islamization of that region. * 705–753 Arab raids * 827 The Arabs begin the conquest of Sicily; this event is probably relevant in marking a stage in the ''
de facto ''De facto'' ( ; , "in fact") describes practices that exist in reality, whether or not they are officially recognized by laws or other formal norms. It is commonly used to refer to what happens in practice, in contrast with ''de jure'' ("by la ...
'' separation of Sardinia from the Byzantine empire.


References


Bibliography


English

* Consentino, Salvatore
"Byzantine Sardinia between West and East"
''Millennium: Jahrbuch zu Kultur und Geschichte des ersten Jahrtausends n. Chr.'' 1 (2004): 329–67. * Contu, Giuseppe
"Sardinia in Arabic Sources"
''AnnalSS'' 3 (2003): 287–97. * Dyson, Stephen L., and Rowland, Robert J. ''Archaeology and History in Sardinia from the Stone Age to the Middle Ages: Shepherds, Sailors, and Conquerors''. Philadelphia: University of Pennsyolvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, 2007. * Galoppini, Laura. "Overview of Sardinia History (500–1500)", pp. 85–114. In Michalle Hobart (ed.), ''A Companion to Sardinian History, 500–1500''. Leiden: Brill, 2017. * Kaegi, Walter Emil. "Gightis and Olbia in the Pseudo-Methodius Apocalypse and Their Significance". ''Byzantinische Forschungen'' 26 (2000): 161–67. * Kaegi, Walter Emil. "Byzantine Sardinia and Africa Face the Muslims: Seventh-Century Evidence". ''Bizantinistica'' 3 (2001): 1–25. * Kaegi, Walter Emil. "Byzantine Sardinia Threatened: Its Changing Situation in the Seventh Century", pp. 43–56. In Paola Corrias (ed.), ''Forme e Caratteri della presenza bizantina: la Sardegna (secoli VI–XI)''. Condaghes, 2012. * Rowland, Robert J. ''The Periphery in the Center: Sardinia in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds''. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2001.


Italian

* Paola Corrias (ed.), ''Forme e Caratteri della presenza bizantina: la Sardegna (secoli VI–XI)'', Condaghes, 2012. * Giorgio Ravegnani, ''I Bizantini in Italia'', Bologna, il Mulino, 2004. * ''Storia della marineria bizantina'', a cura di Antonio Carile, Salvatore Cosentino, Editrice Lo Scarabeo, Bologna, 2004, * Pier Giorgio Spanu, ''La Sardegna bizantina tra VI e VII secolo'', S'Alvure, Oristano, 1998. * Letizia Pani Ermini, ''La Sardegna nel periodo vandalico'', in AA. VV. ''Storia dei Sardi e della Sardegna'', a cura di Massimo Guidetti, vol. I Dalle origini alla fine dell'età bizantina, Jaca Book, Milano, 1987, pagg. 297–327 * André Guillou, ''La lunga età bizantina: politica ed economia'' e ''La diffusione della cultura bizantina'', in AA. VV. ''Storia dei Sardi e della Sardegna'' cit., pag. 329–423 * Giuseppe Meloni, ''Il Condaghe di San Gavino: un documento unico sulla nascita dei giudicati'', Cagliari, CUEC, 2005. . * Giulio Paulis, ''Lingua e cultura nella Sardegna Bizantina'', Sassari, 1983; * Alberto Boscolo, ''La Sardegna bizantina e alto-giudicale'', Sassari, Chiarella 1978; * Victor Leontovitsch, ''Elementi di collegamento fra le istituzioni di diritto pubblico della Sardegna medioevale ed il diritto pubblico dell'Impero bizantino'', in "Medioevo. Saggi e rassegne", 3, Cagliari, 1977, pagg. 9–26 * Piras P.G., ''Aspetti della Sardegna bizantina'', Cagliari, 1966. {{Former monarchies Italian peninsula 534 establishments 530s establishments in the Byzantine Empire
Sardinia Sardinia ( ; it, Sardegna, label=Italian, Corsican and Tabarchino ; sc, Sardigna , sdc, Sardhigna; french: Sardaigne; sdn, Saldigna; ca, Sardenya, label=Algherese and Catalan) is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after ...
Medieval Sardinia