Floriography (language of flowers) is a means of cryptological communication through the use or arrangement of flowers. Meaning has been attributed to flowers for thousands of years, and some form of floriography has been practiced in traditional cultures throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa. Plants and flowers are used as

symbols A symbol is a mark, sign, or word that indicates, signifies, or is understood as representing an idea, object, or relationship. Symbols allow people to go beyond what is known or seen by creating linkages between otherwise very different co ...

in the

Hebrew Bible The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;"Tanach"
'' Song of Songs, as an emblem for the Israelite people, and for the coming Messiah. In

Western culture Leonardo da Vinci's ''Vitruvian Man''. Based on the correlations of ideal Body proportions">human proportions with geometry described by the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius in Book III of his treatise ''De architectura''. image:Plato Pio-Cle ...

William Shakespeare William Shakespeare ( 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616) was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's nation ...

ascribed emblematic meanings to flowers, especially in ''

Hamlet ''The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark'', often shortened to ''Hamlet'' (), is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare sometime between 1599 and 1601. It is Shakespeare's longest play, with 29,551 words. Set in Denmark, the play depicts ...

''. Interest in floriography soared in

Victorian England In the history of the United Kingdom and the British Empire, the Victorian era was the period of Queen Victoria's reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. The era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edward ...

and in the

United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country Continental United States, primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 U.S. state, states, a Washington, D.C., ...

during the 19th century. Gifts of blooms, plants, and specific floral arrangements were used to send a coded message to the recipient, allowing the sender to express feelings which could not be spoken aloud in Victorian society. Armed with floral dictionaries, Victorians often exchanged small "talking bouquets", called nosegays or tussie-mussies, which could be worn or carried as a fashion accessory.

History

According to Jayne Alcock, grounds and gardens supervisor at the Walled Gardens of Cannington, the renewed

Victorian era In the history of the United Kingdom and the British Empire, the Victorian era was the period of Queen Victoria's reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. The era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwa ...

interest in the language of flowers finds its roots in Ottoman Turkey, specifically the court in

Constantinople la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه , alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...

and an obsession it held with

tulips Tulips (''Tulipa'') are a genus of spring-blooming perennial herbaceous bulbiferous geophytes (having bulbs as storage organs). The flowers are usually large, showy and brightly coloured, generally red, pink, yellow, or white (usually in warm ...

during the first half of the 18th century. The Victorian use of flowers as a means of covert communication bloomed alongside a growing interest in

botany Botany, also called , plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist, plant scientist or phytologist is a scientist who specialises in this field. The term "botany" comes from the Ancient Greek w ...

. The floriography craze was introduced to Europe by two people: Englishwoman

Mary Wortley Montagu Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (née Pierrepont; 15 May 168921 August 1762) was an English aristocrat, writer, and poet. Born in 1689, Lady Mary spent her early life in England. In 1712, Lady Mary married Edward Wortley Montagu, who later served a ...

(1689–1762), who brought it to

England England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to its west and Scotland to its north. The Irish Sea lies northwest and the Celtic Sea to the southwest. It is separated from continental Europe ...

in 1717, and Aubry de La Mottraye (1674–1743), who introduced it to the Swedish court in 1727. Joseph Hammer-Purgstall's (1809) appears to be the first published list associating flowers with symbolic definitions, while the first dictionary of floriography appears in 1819 when Louise Cortambert, writing under pen name Madame Charlotte de la Tour, wrote . Floriography was popularized in

France France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...

during 1810–1850, while in Britain it was popular during the Victorian age (roughly 1820–1880), and in the

during 1830–1850. La Tour's book stimulated the publishing industry especially in France, England, and the United States, but also in

Belgium Belgium, ; french: Belgique ; german: Belgien officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Northwestern Europe. The country is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast, France to ...

Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwee ...

, and other European countries as well as in

South America South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere at the northern tip of the continent. It can also be described as the sou ...

. Publishers from these countries produced hundreds of editions of floriography books during the 19th century. British floral dictionaries include Henry Phillips' ''Floral Emblems'' published in 1825 and Frederic Shoberl's ''The Language of Flowers; With Illustrative Poetry'', in 1834. Shoberl was the editor of the popular annual "Forget Me Not" from 1822 to 1834. Robert Tyas was a popular British flower writer, publisher, and clergyman, who lived from 1811 to 1879; his book, ''The Sentiment of Flowers; or, Language of Flora'', first published in 1836 and reprinted by various publishing houses at least through 1880, was billed as an English version of Charlotte de la Tour's book. One of the most familiar books about floriography is Routledge's edition illustrated by

Kate Greenaway Catherine Greenaway (17 March 18466 November 1901) was an English Victorian artist and writer, known for her children's book illustrations. She received her education in graphic design and art between 1858 and 1871 from the Finsbury School o ...

, ''The Language of Flowers''. First published in 1884, it continues to be reprinted to this day. In the United States the first appearance of the language of flowers in print was in the writings of

Constantine Samuel Rafinesque Constantine Samuel Rafinesque-Schmaltz (; October 22, 1783September 18, 1840) was a French 19th-century polymath born near Constantinople in the Ottoman Empire and self-educated in France. He traveled as a young man in the United States, ultimat ...

, a French-American naturalist, who wrote on-going features under the title "The School of Flora", from 1827 through 1828, in the weekly

Saturday Evening Post ''The Saturday Evening Post'' is an American magazine, currently published six times a year. It was issued weekly under this title from 1897 until 1963, then every two weeks until 1969. From the 1920s to the 1960s, it was one of the most widely ...

and the monthly ''Casket; or Flowers of Literature, Wit, and Sentiment''. These pieces contained the botanic, English, and French names of the plant, a description of the plant, an explanation of its Latin names, and the flower's emblematic meaning. However, the first books on floriography were Elizabeth Wirt's ''Flora's Dictionary'' and

Dorothea Dix Dorothea Lynde Dix (April 4, 1802July 17, 1887) was an American advocate on behalf of the indigent mentally ill who, through a vigorous and sustained program of lobbying state legislatures and the United States Congress, created the first gen ...

's ''The Garland of Flora'', both of which were published in 1829, though Wirt's book had been issued in an unauthorized edition in 1828. During its peak in the United States, the language of flowers attracted the attention of popular writers and editors.

Sarah Josepha Hale Sarah Josepha Buell Hale (October 24, 1788April 30, 1879) was an American writer, activist, and editor of ''Godey's Lady's Book''. She was the author of the nursery rhyme "Mary Had a Little Lamb". Hale famously campaigned for the creation of the ...

, longtime editor of the ''

Ladies' Magazine The ''Ladies' Magazine'', an early women's magazine This is a list of women's magazines from around the world. These are magazines that have been published primarily for a readership of women. Currently published *'' 10 Magazine'' (UK - distrib ...

'' and co-editor of ''

Godey's Lady's Book ''Godey's Lady's Book'', alternatively known as ''Godey's Magazine and Lady's Book'', was an American women's magazine that was published in Philadelphia from 1830 to 1878. It was the most widely circulated magazine in the period before the Civil ...

'', edited Flora's Interpreter in 1832; it continued in print through the 1860s. Catharine H. Waterman Esling wrote a long poem titled "The Language of Flowers", which first appeared in 1839 in her own language of flowers book, ''Flora's Lexicon''; it continued in print through the 1860s. Lucy Hooper, an editor, novelist, poet, and playwright, included several of her flower poems in ''The Lady's Book of Flowers and Poetry'', first published in 1841.

Frances Sargent Osgood Frances Sargent Osgood (née Locke; June 18, 1811 – May 12, 1850) was an American poet and one of the most popular women writers during her time.Silverman, 281 Nicknamed "Fanny", she was also famous for her exchange of romantic poems with Edga ...

, a poet and friend of

Edgar Allan Poe Edgar Allan Poe (; Edgar Poe; January 19, 1809 – October 7, 1849) was an American writer, poet, editor, and literary critic. Poe is best known for his poetry and short stories, particularly his tales of mystery and the macabre. He is wid ...

, first published ''The Poetry of Flowers and Flowers of Poetry'' in 1841, and it continued in print through the 1860s. Osgood edited a special gift book, ''The Floral Offering'', in 1847.

Sarah Carter Edgarton Mayo Sarah Carter Edgarton Mayo (born in Shirley, Massachusetts, 17 March 1819; died in Gloucester, Massachusetts, 9 July 1848) was an American author and editor. Biography She did well in the district school, and attended Westford Academy for a sem ...

, author of several flower books, was associate editor of the Universalist monthly ''

The Ladies' Repository ''The Ladies' Repository'' was a monthly periodical based in Cincinnati and produced by members of the Methodist Episcopal Church. From 1841 to 1876, the magazine devoted itself to literature, arts and doctrines of Methodism, containing article ...

'' in

Boston Boston (), officially the City of Boston, is the state capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, as well as the cultural and financial center of the New England region of the United States. It is the 24th- mo ...

from 1839 to 1842. Her book, ''The Flower Vase'', was published in 1844. She edited the books ''Fables of Flora'' in 1844 and ''The Floral Fortune Teller'' in 1846. C. M. Kirtland is probably

Caroline Matilda Kirkland Caroline Mathilda Stansbury Kirkland (January 11, 1801 – April 6, 1864) was an American writer. Biography She was born into a middle-class family in New York City, the oldest of eleven children. Her mother was a writer of fiction and poetry. He ...

, editor of the ''Union Magazine of Literature and Art'' from 1847 to 1851 and the Unitarian weekly ''Christian Inquirer'' from 1847 to 1852. First published in 1848, Kirkland's ''Poetry of Flowers'' continued to be in print at least until 1886. One of the more comprehensive books, its 522 pages contain an extensive dictionary and numerous flower poems.

Meanings

The significance assigned to specific flowers in Western culture varied – nearly every flower had multiple associations, listed in the hundreds of floral dictionaries – but a consensus of meaning for common blooms has emerged. Often, definitions derive from the appearance or behavior of the plant itself. For example, the

mimosa ''Mimosa'' is a genus of about 590 species of herbs and shrubs, in the mimosoid clade of the legume family Fabaceae. The generic name is derived from the Greek word (''mimos''), an "actor" or "mime", and the feminine suffix -''osa'', "resemb ...

, or sensitive plant, represents chastity. This is because the leaves of the mimosa close at night, or when touched. Likewise, the deep red

rose A rose is either a woody perennial flowering plant of the genus ''Rosa'' (), in the family Rosaceae (), or the flower it bears. There are over three hundred species and tens of thousands of cultivars. They form a group of plants that can be ...

and its thorns have been used to symbolize both the

blood of Christ Blood of Christ, also known as the Most Precious Blood of Our Lord Jesus Christ, in Christian theology refers to (a) the physical blood actually shed by Jesus Christ primarily on the Cross, and the salvation which Christianity teaches was accomp ...

and the intensity of

romantic love Romance or romantic love is a feeling of love for, or a strong attraction towards another person, and the courtship behaviors undertaken by an individual to express those overall feelings and resultant emotions. The ''Wiley Blackwell Ency ...

, while the rose's five petals are thought to illustrate the five crucifixion wounds of Christ. Pink roses imply a lesser affection, white roses suggest virtue and chastity, and yellow roses stand for friendship or devotion. The black rose (actually a very dark shade of red, purple, or maroon) has a long association with

death Death is the irreversible cessation of all biological functions that sustain an organism. For organisms with a brain, death can also be defined as the irreversible cessation of functioning of the whole brain, including brainstem, and brain ...

and

dark magic Black magic, also known as dark magic, has traditionally referred to the use of supernatural powers or magic for evil and selfish purposes, specifically the seven magical arts prohibited by canon law, as expounded by Johannes Hartlieb in 145 ...

. "A woman also had to be pretty precise about where she wore flowers. Say, for instance, a suitor had sent her a tussie-mussie ( nosegay). If she pinned it to the 'cleavage of bosom', that would be bad news for him, since that signified friendship. Ah, but if she pinned it over her heart, 'That was an unambiguous declaration of love'." Later authors have been inspired by this tradition to create lists that associate a birthday flower with each day of the year.

In literature

, Jane Austen,

Charlotte Charlotte ( ) is the most populous city in the U.S. state of North Carolina. Located in the Piedmont region, it is the county seat of Mecklenburg County. The population was 874,579 at the 2020 census, making Charlotte the 16th-most populo ...

and Emily Brontë, and children's novelist

Frances Hodgson Burnett Frances Eliza Hodgson Burnett (24 November 1849 – 29 October 1924) was a British-American novelist and playwright. She is best known for the three children's novels ''Little Lord Fauntleroy'' (published in 1885–1886), '' A Little ...

, among others, used the language of flowers in their writings. Klavah Wilderness wildflowers

Shakespeare used the word "flower" more than 100 times in his plays and sonnets. In ''

'',

Ophelia Ophelia () is a character in William Shakespeare's drama '' Hamlet'' (1599–1601). She is a young noblewoman of Denmark, the daughter of Polonius, sister of Laertes and potential wife of Prince Hamlet, who, due to Hamlet's actions, ends u ...

mentions and explains the symbolic meaning of pansies,

rosemary ''Salvia rosmarinus'' (), commonly known as rosemary, is a shrub with fragrant, evergreen, needle-like leaves and white, pink, purple, or blue flowers, native to the Mediterranean region. Until 2017, it was known by the scientific name ''Rosmar ...

fennel Fennel (''Foeniculum vulgare'') is a flowering plant species in the carrot family. It is a hardy, perennial herb with yellow flowers and feathery leaves. It is indigenous to the shores of the Mediterranean but has become widely naturalized ...

lilies ''Lilium'' () is a genus of herbaceous flowering plants growing from bulbs, all with large prominent flowers. They are the true lilies. Lilies are a group of flowering plants which are important in culture and literature in much of the world. M ...

, columbine,

rue ''Ruta graveolens'', commonly known as rue, common rue or herb-of-grace, is a species of ''Ruta'' grown as an ornamental plant and herb. It is native to the Balkan Peninsula. It is grown throughout the world in gardens, especially for its bluis ...

, daisy, and

violets Violet identifies various plant taxa, particularly species in the genus ''Viola'', within which the common violet is the best known member in Eurasia and the common blue violet and common purple violet are the best known members in North America ...

. In ''

The Winter's Tale ''The Winter's Tale'' is a play by William Shakespeare originally published in the First Folio of 1623. Although it was grouped among the comedies, many modern editors have relabelled the play as one of Shakespeare's late romances. Some crit ...

'', the princess Perdita wishes that she had violets, daffodils, and primroses to make garlands for her friends. In '' A Midsummer Night's Dream'',

Oberon Oberon () is a king of the fairies in medieval and Renaissance literature. He is best known as a character in William Shakespeare's play ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', in which he is King of the Fairies and spouse of Titania, Queen of the Fairi ...

talks to his messenger Puck amidst a scene of wild flowers. In

J. K. Rowling Joanne Rowling ( "rolling"; born 31 July 1965), also known by her pen name J. K. Rowling, is a British author and philanthropist. She wrote ''Harry Potter'', a seven-volume children's fantasy series published from 1997 to 2007. The ser ...

's 1997 novel ''

Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone ''Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone'' is a 1997 fantasy novel written by British author J. K. Rowling. The first novel in the ''Harry Potter'' series and Rowling's debut novel, it follows Harry Potter (character), Harry Potter, a youn ...

'', Professor

Severus Snape Severus Snape is a fictional character in J. K. Rowling's ''Harry Potter'' series. He is an exceptionally skilled wizard whose sarcastic, controlled exterior conceals deep emotions and anguish. A Professor at Hogwarts School of Witchcraf ...

uses the language of flowers to express regret and mourning for the death of Lily Potter, his childhood friend and Harry Potter's mother, according to ''

Pottermore Wizarding World Digital is the digital publishing, e-commerce, entertainment and news company. It offers news, features, and articles as well as new and previously unreleased writing by J. K. Rowling regarding the Wizarding World. The site featu ...

''. Chuck Palahniuk's 1999 novel '' Survivor'' features a discussion of Victorian flower language. A yellow chrysanthemum

Flowers are often used as a symbol of femininity. John Steinbeck's short story " The Chrysanthemums" centers around the yellow florets, which are often associated with optimism and lost love. When the protagonist, Elisa, finds her beloved chrysanthemums tossed on the ground, her hobby and womanhood have been ruined; this suffices the themes of lost appreciation and femininity in Steinbeck's work. In 2009,

Vanessa Diffenbaugh Vanessa Diffenbaugh (born 1978) is the American author of the novel '' The Language of Flowers'' and the nonfiction ''A Victorian Flower Dictionary''. Biography Diffenbaugh was born in San Francisco and raised in Chico, California. After study ...

published a ''

New York Times ''The New York Times'' (''the Times'', ''NYT'', or the Gray Lady) is a daily newspaper based in New York City with a worldwide readership reported in 2020 to comprise a declining 840,000 paid print subscribers, and a growing 6 million paid ...

''-bestselling novel centered on floriography, '' The Language of Flowers'', as well as her own flower dictionary. In the poetic anthology (2018) by the Italian writer Sabrina Gatti, Julie, the protagonist, is identified in the Lilium or in the Hydrangea, using the language of flowers, a topic to which the same writer in 2019 dedicates an essay entitled .

Hajime Isayama is a Japanese manga artist. His first series, ''Attack on Titan'' (2009–2021), became one of the best-selling manga series of all time with 110 million copies in circulation as of September 2022. Biography Isayama was born in Ōyama, Ōita ...

frequently used various types of flowers for symbolism and foreshadowing in his manga series '' Attack on Titan'', which also includes Hanakotoba (花言葉), the Japanese form of floriography.

In art

Several Anglican churches in England have paintings, sculpture, or stained glass windows of the

lily crucifix Christian symbolism is the use of symbols, including archetypes, acts, artwork or events, by Christianity. It invests objects or actions with an inner meaning expressing Christian ideas. The symbolism of the early Church was characterized by bei ...

, depicting Christ crucified on or holding a

lily ''Lilium'' () is a genus of herbaceous flowering plants growing from bulbs, all with large prominent flowers. They are the true lilies. Lilies are a group of flowering plants which are important in culture and literature in much of the world. M ...

. One example is a window at The Clopton Chantry Chapel Church in Long Melford, Suffolk, England, UK. The Victorian Pre-Raphaelites, a group of 19th-century painters and poets who aimed to revive the purer art of the late medieval period, captured classic notions of beauty romantically. These artists are known for their idealistic portrayal of women, emphasis on nature and morality, and use of literature and mythology. Flowers laden with symbolism figure prominently in much of their work.

John Everett Millais Sir John Everett Millais, 1st Baronet, ( , ; 8 June 1829 – 13 August 1896) was an English painter and illustrator who was one of the founders of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. He was a child prodigy who, aged eleven, became the youngest ...

, a founder of the Pre-Raphaelite brotherhood, used oils to create pieces filled with naturalistic elements and rich in floriography. His painting ''

'' (1852) depicts Shakespeare's drowned stargazer floating amid the flowers she describes in Act IV, Scene V of ''

''.

John Everett Millais - Ophelia - Google Art Project

The Edwardian artist John Singer Sargent spent much time painting outdoors in the English countryside, frequently utilizing floral symbolism. Sargent's first major success came in 1887, with '' Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose'', a large piece painted on site in the

plein air ''En plein air'' (; French for 'outdoors'), or ''plein air'' painting, is the act of painting outdoors. This method contrasts with studio painting or academic rules that might create a predetermined look. The theory of 'En plein air' painting ...

manner, of two young girls lighting lanterns in an English garden. Contemporary artist

Whitney Lynn Whitney Lynn is an American contemporary artist and academic. Much of her work is sculptural and performance-based, incorporating found objects and materials from various cultural and historical sources. Her work deals with topics of boundaries a ...

created a site-specific project for the San Diego International Airport employing floriography, utilizing flowers' ability to communicate messages that otherwise would be restricted or difficult to speak aloud. Lynn previously created a work, ''Memorial Bouquet,'' utilizing floral symbolism for the

San Francisco Arts Commission The San Francisco Arts Commission (SFAC) is the City agency that champions the arts as essential to daily life by investing in a vibrant arts community, enlivening the urban environment and shaping innovative cultural policy in San Francisco, Cali ...

Gallery. Based on Dutch Golden Age still-life painting, the flowers in the arrangement represent countries that have been sites of US military operations and conflicts. Lebouquetdesaens

Notes and references

''History of the Language of Flowers''
a chapter excerpted from the book ''Flowers, the Angels' Alphabet'' by

Susan Loy Susan Loy (born February 26, 1951) is an American artist, calligrapher, and author best known for her "Literary Calligraphy" watercolor paintings of the Language of Flowers and the White House Easter Egg Roll. These paintings combine hand-lette ...

, 2001.
''The Victorian Language of Flowers - Occasional Papers volume 10''
Occasional Papers of the RHS Lindley Library, volume 10, April 2013. Gives a full overview of the topic and a comparison of the meanings of flowers from a selection of language of flowers books in the RHS Lindley Libraries. *Scans of 19th-century books on the language of flowers: **Charlotte de La Tour (in French),
Le langage des fleurs
', 7e éd., Paris : Garnier Frères, 1858. At

Google books Google Books (previously known as Google Book Search, Google Print, and by its code-name Project Ocean) is a service from Google Inc. that searches the full text of books and magazines that Google has scanned, converted to text using optical ...

. **

(illustration)
''Language of Flowers''
n.d. Via the

Internet Archive The Internet Archive is an American digital library with the stated mission of "universal access to all knowledge". It provides free public access to collections of digitized materials, including websites, software applications/games, music, ...

. **Nehemiah Cleaveland
''The Flowers Personified''
New York: R Martin, 1849. Via the Internet Archive {{Authority control Victorian culture

History

Meanings

In literature

In art

See also

Notes and references