Battle of Teutoburger Wald
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The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, described as the Varian Disaster () by Roman historians, took place at modern
Kalkriese Kalkriese is a village now administratively part of the city of Bramsche in the district of Osnabrück, Lower Saxony, Germany. It is on the northern slope of the Wiehen Hills, a ridge-like range of hills, north of Osnabrück. The ''Kalkrieser Ber ...
in AD 9, when an alliance of Germanic peoples ambushed Roman legions and their
auxilia The (, lit. "auxiliaries") were introduced as non-citizen troops attached to the citizen legions by Augustus after his reorganisation of the Imperial Roman army from 30 BC. By the 2nd century, the Auxilia contained the same number of inf ...
ries, led by
Publius Quinctilius Varus Publius Quinctilius Varus (Cremona, 46 BC – Teutoburg Forest, AD 9) was a Roman general and politician under the first Roman emperor Augustus. Varus is generally remembered for having lost three Roman legions when ambushed by Germanic tribes l ...
. The alliance was led by
Arminius Arminius ( 18/17 BC – 21 AD) was a chieftain of the Germanic Cherusci tribe who is best known for commanding an alliance of Germanic tribes at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD, in which three Roman legions under the command of ge ...
, a Germanic officer of Varus's auxilia. Arminius had acquired Roman citizenship and had received a Roman military education, which enabled him to deceive the Roman commander methodically and anticipate the
Roman army The Roman army (Latin: ) was the armed forces deployed by the Romans throughout the duration of Ancient Rome, from the Roman Kingdom (c. 500 BC) to the Roman Republic (500–31 BC) and the Roman Empire (31 BC–395 AD), and its medieval continu ...
's tactical responses. Teutoburg Forest is commonly seen as one of the most important defeats in Roman history, bringing the triumphant period of expansion under Augustus to an abrupt end. The outcome of this battle dissuaded the Romans from their ambition of conquering
Germania Germania ( ; ), also called Magna Germania (English: ''Great Germania''), Germania Libera (English: ''Free Germania''), or Germanic Barbaricum to distinguish it from the Roman province of the same name, was a large historical region in north- ...
, and is thus considered one of the most important events in European history. The provinces of
Germania Superior Germania Superior ("Upper Germania") was an imperial province of the Roman Empire. It comprised an area of today's western Switzerland, the French Jura and Alsace regions, and southwestern Germany. Important cities were Besançon ('' Vesontio' ...
and Germania Inferior, sometimes collectively referred to as ''Roman Germania'', were subsequently established in northeast Roman Gaul, while territories beyond the Rhine remained independent of Roman control. Retaliatory campaigns were commanded by Tiberius and
Germanicus Germanicus Julius Caesar (24 May 15 BC – 10 October AD 19) was an ancient Roman general, known for his campaigns in Germania. The son of Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia the Younger, Germanicus was born into an influential branch of the Patric ...
and would enjoy success, but the Rhine would eventually become the border between the Roman Empire and the rest of Germania. The Roman Empire would launch no other major incursion into Germania until Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) during the
Marcomannic Wars The Marcomannic Wars (Latin: ''bellum Germanicum et Sarmaticum'', "German and Sarmatian War") were a series of wars lasting from about 166 until 180 AD. These wars pitted the Roman Empire against, principally, the Germanic Marcomanni and Quadi ...
. Some of the descendants of the
vassal kingdom A vassal state is any state that has a mutual obligation to a superior state or empire, in a status similar to that of a vassal in the feudal system in medieval Europe. Vassal states were common among the empires of the Near East, dating back to t ...
s, like the
Suebi The Suebi (or Suebians, also spelled Suevi, Suavi) were a large group of Germanic peoples originally from the Elbe river region in what is now Germany and the Czech Republic. In the early Roman era they included many peoples with their own names ...
(by
suzerainty Suzerainty () is the rights and obligations of a person, state or other polity who controls the foreign policy and relations of a tributary state, while allowing the tributary state to have internal autonomy. While the subordinate party is cal ...
), that Augustus tried to create in Germania to expand the ''
romanitas ''Romanitas'' is the collection of political and cultural concepts and practices by which the Romans defined themselves. It is a Latin word, first coined in the third century AD, meaning "Roman-ness" and has been used by modern historians as shor ...
'' and the Empire in a peaceful way would be the ones that invaded the Empire in the fourth and fifth centuries. Tacitus, Book 12, 27–31
Text in Latin and English
at Sacred Texts
Germania
UNRV History


Background

Following the attacks of Drusus I in 11–9 BC,
Arminius Arminius ( 18/17 BC – 21 AD) was a chieftain of the Germanic Cherusci tribe who is best known for commanding an alliance of Germanic tribes at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD, in which three Roman legions under the command of ge ...
, along with his brother Flavus, was sent to Rome as tribute by their father, Segimerus the Conqueror, chieftain of the noblest house in the tribe of the Cherusci. Arminius then spent his youth in Rome as a hostage, where he received a military education, and was even given the rank of Equestrian. During Arminius' absence, Segimerus was declared a coward by the other Germanic chieftains, because he had submitted to Roman rule, a crime punishable by death under Germanic law. Between 11 BC and AD 4 , hostility and suspicion among the allied Germanic peoples deepened. Trade and political accords between the warlords deteriorated. In AD 4 the Roman general (and later emperor) Tiberius entered Germania and subjugated the Cananefates in Germania Inferior, the Chatti near the upper Weser River, and the Bructeri south of the Kalkriese. After these conquests he led his army across the Weser. In early AD 6, Legatus
Gaius Sentius Saturninus Gaius Sentius Saturninus (fl. late 1st century BC – 1st century AD) was a Roman senator and military officer who was appointed Roman consul in 19 BC. He served as the proconsular governor of Africa, and later as imperial governor of Syria. He t ...
and Consul Legatus Marcus Aemilius Lepidus led a massive army of 13 legions and their entourage, totalling around 100,000 men (65,000 heavy infantry legionaries, 10,000–20,000
cavalrymen Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from "cheval" meaning "horse") are soldiers or warriors who Horses in warfare, fight mounted on horseback. Cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms, operating a ...
, archers, and 10,000–20,000 civilians) against
Maroboduus Maroboduus (d. AD 37) was a king of the Marcomanni, who were a Germanic Suebian people. He spent part of his youth in Rome, and returning, found his people under pressure from invasions by the Roman empire between the Rhine and Elbe. He led th ...
, the king of the Marcomanni, who were a tribe of the
Suebi The Suebi (or Suebians, also spelled Suevi, Suavi) were a large group of Germanic peoples originally from the Elbe river region in what is now Germany and the Czech Republic. In the early Roman era they included many peoples with their own names ...
. Later in 6 AD, leadership of the Roman force was turned over to
Publius Quinctilius Varus Publius Quinctilius Varus (Cremona, 46 BC – Teutoburg Forest, AD 9) was a Roman general and politician under the first Roman emperor Augustus. Varus is generally remembered for having lost three Roman legions when ambushed by Germanic tribes l ...
, a nobleman and experienced administrative official from a patrician family who was related to the Imperial family. He was assigned to consolidate the new province of Germania in the autumn of that year. Tiberius was then forced to turn his attention to the Bellum Batonianum, also known as the Great Illyrian Revolt, which broke out in the Balkan province of Illyricum. Led by Bato the Daesitiate,
Bato the Breucian Bato the Breucian or Bato of the Breuci was the chieftain of the Breuci, an Illyrian tribe that fought against the Roman Empire in a war known as ''Bellum Batonianum''. Bato joined his rebel forces with those led by Bato of the Daesitiates. A ...
,
Pinnes of Pannonia Pinnes or Pinnetes was a Pannonian chieftain, who led a rebellion alongside Breucian chieftain Bato (part of the wider ''bellum Batonianum'') until Bato betrayed him and handed him over to the Romans, thus securing the rule over the Breuci. See ...
, and elements of the Marcomanni, it lasted nearly four years. Tiberius was forced to stop his campaign against Maroboduus and recognise him as kingVelleius Paterculus, ''Compendium of Roman History'' 2, 109, 5; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' 55, 28, 6–7 so that he could then send his eight legions ( VIII ''Augusta'', XV ''Apollinaris'', XX ''Valeria Victrix'', XXI ''Rapax'', XIII ''Gemina'', XIV ''Gemina'', XVI ''Gallica'' and an unknown unit) to crush the rebellion in the Balkans. Nearly half of all Roman legions in existence were sent to the Balkans to end the revolt, which was itself triggered by constant neglect, endemic food shortages, high taxes, and harsh behaviour on the part of the Roman tax collectors. This campaign, led by Tiberius and Quaestor Legatus Germanicus under Emperor Augustus, was one of the most difficult, and most crucial, in the history of the Roman Empire. Due to this massive redeployment of available legions, when Varus was named in Germania, only three legions were available to him. Varus's name and deeds were well known beyond the empire because of his ruthlessness and crucifixion of insurgents. While he was feared by the people, he was highly respected by the Roman Senate. On the Rhine, he was in command of the
XVII 17 (seventeen) is the natural number following 16 and preceding 18. It is a prime number. Seventeen is the sum of the first four prime numbers. In mathematics 17 is the seventh prime number, which makes seventeen the fourth super-prime, as s ...
,
XVIII 18 (eighteen) is the natural number following 17 and preceding 19. In mathematics * Eighteen is a composite number, its divisors being 1, 2, 3, 6 and 9. Three of these divisors (3, 6 and 9) add up to 18, hence 18 is a semiperfect number. ...
, and XIX legions. These had previously been led by General Gaius Sentius Saturninus, who had been sent back to Rome after being awarded the . The other two legions in the winter-quarters of the army at were led by Varus' nephew, Lucius Nonius Asprenas, and perhaps Lucius Arruntius. After his return from Rome, Arminius became a trusted advisor to Varus, but in secret he forged an alliance of Germanic peoples that had traditionally been enemies. These probably included the Cherusci, Marsi, Chatti, and Bructeri. These were some of the fifty Germanic tribes at the time. Using the collective outrage over Varus' tyrannous insolence and wanton cruelty to the conquered, Arminius was able to unite the disorganized groups who had submitted in sullen hatred to the Roman dominion, and maintain the alliance until the most opportune moment to strike. Following the transfer of eight of eleven legions present in Germania to the Balkans, only three legions faced the Germanic tribesmen. This represented the perfect opportunity for Arminius to defeat Varus. While Varus was on his way from his summer camp west of the River Weser to winter headquarters near the Rhine, he heard reports of a local rebellion, reports which had been fabricated by Arminius.
Edward Shepherd Creasy Sir Edward Shepherd Creasy (12 September 1812 – 17 January 1878) was an English historian and jurist. Life He was born the son of a Land Agent in Bexley, Kent, England and educated at Eton College (where he won the Newcastle Scholarship in ...
writes that "This was represented to Varus as an occasion which required his prompt attendance on the spot; but he was kept in studied ignorance of its being part of a concerted national rising; and he still looked on Arminius as his submissive vassal". Varus decided to quell this uprising immediately, expediting his response by taking a detour through territory that was unfamiliar to the Romans. Arminius, who accompanied him, directed him along a route that would facilitate an ambush. Another Cheruscan nobleman, Segestes, brother of Segimerus and unwilling father-in-law to Arminius, warned Varus the night before the Roman forces departed, allegedly suggesting that Varus should apprehend Arminius, along with other Germanic leaders whom he identified as participants in the planned uprising. His warning, however, was dismissed as stemming from the personal
feud A feud , referred to in more extreme cases as a blood feud, vendetta, faida, clan war, gang war, or private war, is a long-running argument or fight, often between social groups of people, especially families or clans. Feuds begin because one part ...
between Segestes and Arminius. Arminius then left under the pretext of drumming up Germanic forces to support the Roman campaign. Once free from prying eyes, he immediately led his troops in a series of attacks on the surrounding Roman garrisons. Recent archaeological finds place the battle at
Kalkriese Kalkriese is a village now administratively part of the city of Bramsche in the district of Osnabrück, Lower Saxony, Germany. It is on the northern slope of the Wiehen Hills, a ridge-like range of hills, north of Osnabrück. The ''Kalkrieser Ber ...
Hill in Osnabrück county, Lower Saxony. On the basis of Roman accounts, the Romans were marching northwest from what is now the city of Detmold, passing east of Osnabrück after camping in the area, prior to the attack.


Battles

Varus' forces included his three legions (Legio XVII, Legio XVIII and Legio XIX), six
cohorts Cohort or cohortes may refer to: * Cohort (educational group), a group of students working together through the same academic curriculum * Cohort (floating point), a set of different encodings of the same numerical value * Cohort (military unit), ...
of auxiliary troops (non-citizens or allied troops) and three squadrons of cavalry ('' alae''). Most of these lacked combat experience, both with regard to Germanic fighters and under the prevalent local conditions. The Roman forces were not marching in combat formation and were interspersed with large numbers of camp followers. As they entered the forest northeast of Osnabrück, they found the track narrow and muddy. According to Cassius Dio, a violent storm had also arisen. He also writes that Varus neglected to send out reconnaissance parties ahead of the main body of troops. The line of march was now stretched out perilously long—between . It was in this state when it came under attack by Germanic warriors armed with swords, large lances and narrow-bladed short spears called '' fremae''. The attackers surrounded the entire Roman army and rained down javelins on the intruders. Arminius, recalling his education in Rome, understood his enemies' tactics and was able to direct his troops to counter them effectively by using locally superior numbers against the dispersed Roman legions. The Romans managed to set up a fortified night camp and, in the next morning, broke out into the open country north of the Wiehen Hills, near the modern town of Ostercappeln. The break-out was accompanied by heavy losses to the Roman survivors, as was a further attempt to escape by marching through another forested area, as the torrential rains continued. The Romans undertook a night march to escape, but marched into another trap that Arminius had set at the foot of Kalkriese Hill. There, a sandy, open strip on which the Romans could march was constricted by the hill, so that there was a gap of only about between the woods and the swampland at the edge of the Great Bog. The road was further blocked by a trench and, towards the forest, an earthen wall had been built along the roadside, permitting the Germanic alliance to attack the Romans from cover. The Romans made a desperate attempt to storm the wall, but failed, and the highest-ranking officer next to Varus, ''Legatus''
Numonius Vala Numonius Vala was a combination of family name ''( nomen)'' and ''cognomen'' used by ancient Roman men of the '' gens Numonia''. Gaius Numonius Vala Gaius Numonius Vala is known only from coins, from which it appears that he had obtained renown ...
, abandoned the troops by riding off with the cavalry. His retreat was in vain, however, as he was overtaken by the Germanic cavalry and killed shortly thereafter, according to Velleius Paterculus. The Germanic warriors then stormed the field and slaughtered the disintegrating Roman forces. Varus committed suicide, and Velleius reports that one commander, '' Praefectus'' Ceionius, surrendered, then later took his own life, while his colleague ''Praefectus'' Eggius died leading his doomed troops. Roman casualties have been estimated at 15,000–20,000 dead, and many of the officers were said to have taken their own lives by falling on their swords in the approved manner. Tacitus wrote that many officers were
sacrificed Sacrifice is the offering of material possessions or the lives of animals or humans to a deity as an act of propitiation or worship. Evidence of ritual animal sacrifice has been seen at least since ancient Hebrews and Greeks, and possibly exis ...
by the Germanic forces as part of their indigenous religious ceremonies, cooked in pots and their bones used for rituals. Others were ransomed and some common soldiers appear to have been enslaved. All Roman accounts stress the completeness of the Roman defeat, and the finds at Kalkriese of 6,000 pieces of Roman equipment, but only a single item that is clearly Germanic (part of a spur), suggest few Germanic losses. However, the victors would most likely have removed the bodies of their fallen and their practice of burying their warriors' battle gear with them would have contributed to the lack of Germanic relics. Additionally, as many as several thousand Germanic soldiers were deserting militiamen and wore Roman armour, and thus would appear to be "Roman" in the archaeological digs. It is known, too, that the Germanic peoples wore perishable organic material, such as leather, and less metal than the Roman legionaries. The victory was followed by a clean sweep of all Roman forts, garrisons and cities (of which there were at least two) east of the Rhine; the two Roman legions remaining in Germania, commanded by Varus' nephew Lucius Nonius Asprenas, simply tried to hold the Rhine. One fort, Aliso, most likely located in today's Haltern am See, fended off the Germanic alliance for many weeks, perhaps even a few months. After the situation became untenable, the garrison under Lucius Caedicius, accompanied by survivors of Teutoburg Forest, broke through the siege and reached the Rhine. They had resisted long enough for Nonius Asprenas to have organized the Roman defence on the Rhine with two legions and Tiberius to have arrived with a new army, together preventing Arminius from crossing the Rhine and invading Gaul.


Aftermath

Upon hearing of the defeat, the Emperor Augustus, according to the Roman historian
Suetonius Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (), commonly referred to as Suetonius ( ; c. AD 69 – after AD 122), was a Roman historian who wrote during the early Imperial era of the Roman Empire. His most important surviving work is a set of biographies ...
in '' The Twelve Caesars'', was so shaken that he stood butting his head against the walls of his palace, repeatedly shouting: The legion numbers XVII, XVIII and XIX were not used again by the Romans. This was in contrast to other legions that were reestablished after suffering defeat. The battle abruptly ended the period of triumphant Roman expansion that followed the end of the Civil Wars forty years earlier. Augustus' stepson Tiberius took effective control, and prepared for the continuation of the war. Legio ''II Augusta'', ''XX Valeria Victrix'' and ''XIII Gemina'' were sent to the Rhine to replace the lost legions. Arminius sent Varus' severed head to
Maroboduus Maroboduus (d. AD 37) was a king of the Marcomanni, who were a Germanic Suebian people. He spent part of his youth in Rome, and returning, found his people under pressure from invasions by the Roman empire between the Rhine and Elbe. He led th ...
, king of the Marcomanni, the other most powerful Germanic ruler, with the offer of an anti-Roman alliance. Maroboduus declined, sending the head to Rome for burial, and remained neutral throughout the ensuing war. Only thereafter did a brief, inconclusive war break out between the two Germanic leaders.


Roman retaliation


Germanicus' campaign against the Germanic coalition

Though the shock at the slaughter was enormous, the Romans immediately began a slow, systematic process of preparing for the reconquest of the country. In 14 AD, just after Augustus' death and the accession of his heir and stepson Tiberius, a massive raid was conducted by the new emperor's nephew
Germanicus Germanicus Julius Caesar (24 May 15 BC – 10 October AD 19) was an ancient Roman general, known for his campaigns in Germania. The son of Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia the Younger, Germanicus was born into an influential branch of the Patric ...
. He attacked the Marsi with the element of surprise. The Bructeri,
Tubanti The Tubantes were a Germanic tribe, living in the eastern part of the Netherlands, north of the Rhine river. They are often equated to the ''Tuihanti'', who are known from two inscriptions found near Hadrian's Wall. The modern name Twente derives f ...
and
Usipeti The Usipetes or Usipii (in Plutarch's Greek, Ousipai, and possibly the same as the Ouispoi of Claudius Ptolemy) were an ancient tribe who moved into the area on the right bank (the northern or eastern bank) of the lower Rhine in the first century B ...
were roused by the attack and ambushed Germanicus on the way to his winter quarters, but were defeated with heavy losses. The next year was marked by two major campaigns and several smaller battles with a large army estimated at 55,000–70,000 men, backed by naval forces. In spring 15 AD, ''Legatus'' Caecina Severus invaded the Marsi a second time with about 25,000–30,000 men, causing great havoc. Meanwhile, Germanicus' troops had built a fort on Mount Taunus from where he marched with about 30,000–35,000 men against the Chatti. Many of the men fled across a river and dispersed themselves in the forests. Germanicus next marched on
Mattium Mattium was the ancient "capital" or principal settlement (Latin: "caput gentis") of the Chatti. Its exact location is unknown, though following the description of Tacitus it is generally assumed to be somewhere in the wider neighbourhood of Fritz ...
("caput gentis", capital city) and burned it to the ground. After initial successful skirmishes in summer 15 AD, including the capture of Arminius' wife Thusnelda, the army visited the site of the first battle. According to Tacitus, they found heaps of bleached bones and severed skulls nailed to trees, which they buried, "...looking on all as kinsfolk and of their own blood...". At a location Tacitus calls the ''pontes longi'' ("long causeways"), in boggy lowlands somewhere near the Ems, Arminius' troops attacked the Romans. Arminius initially caught Germanicus' cavalry in a trap, inflicting minor casualties, but the Roman infantry reinforced the rout and checked them. The fighting lasted for two days, with neither side achieving a decisive victory. Germanicus' forces withdrew and returned to the Rhine. Under Germanicus, the Romans marched another army, along with allied Germanic auxiliaries, into Germania in 16 AD. He forced a crossing of the Weser near modern
Minden Minden () is a middle-sized town in the very north-east of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, the greatest town between Bielefeld and Hanover. It is the capital of the district (''Kreis'') of Minden-Lübbecke, which is part of the region of Detm ...
, suffering some losses to a Germanic skirmishing force, and forced Arminius' army to stand in open battle at
Idistaviso Idistaviso is the location on the Weser river where forces commanded by Arminius fought those commanded by Germanicus at the Battle of the Weser River in 16 CE, attested in chapter 16 of Tacitus' ''Annales'' II. The name was amended by Karl Müllen ...
in the
Battle of the Weser River The Battle of the Weser River, sometimes known as the First Battle of Minden or Battle of Idistaviso, was fought in 16 AD between Roman legions commanded by Roman Emperor Tiberius's heir and adopted son, Germanicus, and an alliance of Germanic ...
. Germanicus' legions inflicted huge casualties on the Germanic armies while sustaining only minor losses. A final battle was fought at the
Angrivarian Wall The so-called Angrivarian Wall (german: Angrivarierwall) was mentioned by the Roman historian, Tacitus (''Annals'' II, 19–21), in connection with the campaign by the Roman general Germanicus in 16 AD, which included the Battle of the Angrivarian ...
west of modern Hanover, repeating the pattern of high Germanic fatalities, which forced them to flee beyond the Elbe. Germanicus, having defeated the forces between the Rhine and the Elbe, then ordered
Caius Silius Gaius Silius (died AD 24) was a Roman Empire, Roman Roman senate, senator who achieved successes as a general over German barbarians following the disaster of the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. For this achievement he was appointed Roman consul, ...
to march against the Chatti with a mixed force of three thousand cavalry and thirty thousand infantry and lay waste to their territory, while Germanicus, with a larger army, invaded the Marsi for the third time and devastated their land, encountering no resistance. With his main objectives reached and winter approaching, Germanicus ordered his army back to their winter camps, with the fleet incurring some damage from a storm in the North Sea. Afterwards, a few more raids across the Rhine resulted in the recovery of two of the three legions' eagles lost in 9 AD: one Legion Eagle was recovered from the Marsi in 14 AD; the Legion XIX Eagle was recovered from the Bructeri in 15 AD by troops under Lucius Stertinius. Tiberius ordered the Roman forces to halt and withdraw across the Rhine. Germanicus was recalled to Rome and informed by Tiberius that he would be given a triumph and reassigned to a new command. File:Germania 14 Germanico.jpg, Military action in 14 AD File:Germania 15 Germanico.jpg, Campaigns in 15 AD File:Germania 16 Germanico.jpg, Operations in 16 AD Germanicus' campaign had been taken to avenge the Teutoburg slaughter and also partially in reaction to indications of mutinous intent amongst his troops. Arminius, who had been considered a very real threat to stability by Rome, was now defeated. Once his Germanic coalition had been broken and honour avenged, the huge cost and risk of keeping the Roman army operating beyond the Rhine was not worth any likely benefit to be gained. Tacitus, with some bitterness, claims that Tiberius' decision to recall Germanicus was driven by his jealousy of the glory Germanicus had acquired, and that an additional campaign the next summer would have concluded the war and facilitated a Roman occupation of territories between the Rhine and the Elbe.


Later campaigns

The third legionary standard was recovered in 41 AD by Publius Gabinius from the Chauci during the reign of
Claudius Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (; 1 August 10 BC – 13 October AD 54) was the fourth Roman emperor, ruling from AD 41 to 54. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, Claudius was born to Nero Claudius Drusus, Drusu ...
, brother of Germanicus. Possibly the recovered '' aquilae'' were placed within the Temple of Mars Ultor (" Mars the Avenger"), the ruins of which stand today in the
Forum of Augustus The Forum of Augustus ( la, Forum Augustum; it, Foro di Augusto) is one of the Imperial fora of Rome, Italy, built by Augustus (). It includes the Temple of Mars Ultor. The incomplete forum and its temple were inaugurated in 2 BC, 40 years after ...
by the Via dei Fori Imperiali in Rome. The last chapter was recounted by the historian Tacitus. Around 50 AD, bands of Chatti invaded Roman territory in
Germania Superior Germania Superior ("Upper Germania") was an imperial province of the Roman Empire. It comprised an area of today's western Switzerland, the French Jura and Alsace regions, and southwestern Germany. Important cities were Besançon ('' Vesontio' ...
, possibly an area in Hesse east of the Rhine that the Romans appear to have still held, and began to plunder. The Roman commander, Publius Pomponius Secundus, and a legionary force supported by Roman cavalry recruited auxiliaries from the
Vangiones The Vangiones appear first in history as an ancient Germanic tribe of unknown provenance. They threw in their lot with Ariovistus in his bid of 58 BC to invade Gaul through the Doubs river valley and lost to Julius Caesar in a battle probably near ...
and Nemetes. They attacked the Chatti from both sides and defeated them, and joyfully found and liberated Roman prisoners, including some from Varus' legions who had been held for 40 years.


Impact on Roman expansion

From the time of the rediscovery of Roman sources in the 15th century, the Battles of the Teutoburg Forest have been seen as a pivotal event resulting in the end of Roman expansion into northern Europe. This theory became prevalent in the 19th century, and formed an integral part of the mythology of German nationalism. More recently some scholars questioned this interpretation, advancing a number of reasons why the Rhine was a practical boundary for the Roman Empire, and more suitable than any other river in Germania. Logistically, armies on the Rhine could be supplied from the Mediterranean via the Rhône, Saône and Mosel, with a brief stretch of portage. Armies on the Elbe, on the other hand, would have to have been supplied either by extensive overland routes or ships travelling the hazardous Atlantic seas. Economically, the Rhine was already supporting towns and sizeable villages at the time of the Gallic conquest. Northern Germania was far less developed, possessed fewer villages, and had little food surplus and thus a far lesser capacity for tribute. Thus the Rhine was both significantly more accessible from Rome and better suited to supply sizeable garrisons than the regions beyond. There were also practical reasons to fall back from the limits of Augustus' expansionism in this region. The Romans were mostly interested in conquering areas that had a high degree of self-sufficiency which could provide a tax base for them to extract from. Most of Germania Magna did not have the higher level of urbanism at this time as in comparison with some Celtic Gallic settlements, which were in many ways already integrated into the Roman trade network in the case of southern Gaul. In a cost/benefit analysis, the prestige to be gained by conquering more territory was outweighed by the lack of financial benefits accorded to conquest. The Teutoburg Forest myth is noteworthy in 19th century Germanic interpretations as to why the "march of the Roman Empire" was halted, but in reality Roman punitive campaigns into Germania continued and they were intended less for conquest or expansion than they were to force the Germanic alliance into some kind of political structure that would be compliant with Roman diplomatic efforts. The most famous of those incursions, led by the Roman emperor Maximinus Thrax, resulted in a Roman victory in 235 AD at the
Battle at the Harzhorn The Battle at the Harzhorn took place in the early 3rd century between Germanic and Roman troops near the Harzhorn hill between the towns of Kalefeld and Bad Gandersheim, in the state of Lower Saxony, Germany. The battlefield, spanning severa ...
Hill, which is located in the modern German state of Lower Saxony, east of the Weser river, between the towns of
Kalefeld Kalefeld is a municipality in the district of Northeim, in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is situated approximately 10 km north of Northeim. It comprises the villages of Dögerode, Eboldshausen, Echte, Kalefeld, Oldenrode, Oldershausen, Sebexen ...
and Bad Gandersheim. After the
Marcomannic Wars The Marcomannic Wars (Latin: ''bellum Germanicum et Sarmaticum'', "German and Sarmatian War") were a series of wars lasting from about 166 until 180 AD. These wars pitted the Roman Empire against, principally, the Germanic Marcomanni and Quadi ...
, the Romans even managed to occupy the provinces of Marcomannia and Sarmatia, corresponding to modern Czech Republic, Slovakia and Bavaria/Austria/Hungary north of Danube. Final plans to annex those territories were discarded by
Commodus Commodus (; 31 August 161 – 31 December 192) was a Roman emperor who ruled from 177 to 192. He served jointly with his father Marcus Aurelius from 176 until the latter's death in 180, and thereafter he reigned alone until his assassination. ...
deeming the occupation of the region too expensive for the imperial treasury. After Arminius was defeated and dead, having been murdered in 21 AD by opponents within his own tribe, Rome tried to control Germania beyond the Limes indirectly, by appointing client kings.
Italicus Italicus Rosolio di Bergamotto is a bergamot rosolio (a type of aperitivo) manufactured in Italy. The liqueur uses bergamot from Calabria and citrons from Sicily, along with Italian flower varieties. The spirit was created by an Italian bartend ...
, a nephew of Arminius, was appointed king of the Cherusci, Vangio and Sido became vassal princes of the powerful Suebi, and the
Quadi The Quadi were a Germanic * * * people who lived approximately in the area of modern Moravia in the time of the Roman Empire. The only surviving contemporary reports about the Germanic tribe are those of the Romans, whose empire had its bord ...
an client king Vannius was imposed as a ruler of the Marcomanni. Between 91 and 92 during the reign of emperor Domitian, the Romans sent a military detachment to assist their client
Lugii The Lugii (or ''Lugi'', ''Lygii'', ''Ligii'', ''Lugiones'', ''Lygians'', ''Ligians'', ''Lugians'', or ''Lougoi'') were a large tribal confederation mentioned by Roman authors living in ca. 100 BC–300 AD in Central Europe, north of the Sude ...
against the Suebi in what is now Poland. Roman controlled territory was limited to the modern states of Austria, Baden-Württemberg, southern Bavaria, southern Hesse, Saarland and the Rhineland as Roman provinces of Noricum, Raetia and Germania. The Roman provinces in western Germany, Germania Inferior (with the capital situated at Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium, modern Cologne) and Germania Superior (with its capital at Mogontiacum, modern Mainz), were formally established in 85 AD, after a long period of military occupation beginning in the reign of the emperor Augustus. Nonetheless, the Severan-era historian Cassius Dio is emphatic that Varus had been conducting the latter stages of full colonization of a greater German province, which has been partially confirmed by recent archaeological discoveries such as the Varian-era Roman provincial settlement at Waldgirmes Forum.


Site of the battle

The theories about the location of the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest have emerged in large numbers especially since the beginning of the 16th century, when the Tacitus works ''Germania'' and ''Annales'' were rediscovered. The assumptions about the possible place of the battle are based essentially on place names and river names, as well as on the description of the topography by the ancient writers, on investigations of the prehistoric road network, and on archaeological finds. Only a few assumptions are scientifically based theories. The prehistorian and provincial archaeologist Harald Petrikovits combined the several hundred theories in 1966 into four units: * according to the northern theory on the northern edge of the Wiehen Hills and Weser Hills * according to Lippe theory in the eastern half of the Teutoburg Forest or between this and the Weser river * according to the Münsterland theory south of the Teutoburg Forest near Beckum or just to the east of it and * according to the southern theory in the hill country southeast of the Westphalian Lowland. For almost 2,000 years, the site of the battle was unidentified. The main clue to its location was an allusion to the ''saltus Teutoburgiensis'' in section i.60–62 of Tacitus' '' Annals'', an area "not far" from the land between the upper reaches of the Lippe and Ems rivers in central Westphalia. During the 19th century, theories as to the site abounded, and the followers of one theory successfully argued for a long wooded ridge called the
Osning The Teutoburg Forest ( ; german: Teutoburger Wald ) is a range of low, forested hills in the German states of Lower Saxony and North Rhine-Westphalia. Until the 17th century, the official name of the hill ridge was Osning. It was first renamed t ...
, near Bielefeld. This was then renamed the Teutoburg Forest. Late 20th-century research and excavations were sparked by finds by a British amateur
archaeologist Archaeology or archeology is the scientific study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, sites, and cultural landscap ...
, Major Tony Clunn, who was casually prospecting at Kalkriese Hill () with a metal detector in the hope of finding "the odd Roman coin". He discovered coins from the reign of Augustus (and none later), and some ovoid leaden Roman sling bolts. Kalkriese is a village administratively part of the city of Bramsche, on the north slope fringes of the Wiehen, a ridge-like range of hills in Lower Saxony north of Osnabrück. This site, some north west of Osning, was first suggested by the 19th-century historian Theodor Mommsen, renowned for his fundamental work on Roman history. Initial systematic excavations were carried out by the archaeological team of the ''Kulturhistorisches Museum Osnabrück'' under the direction of Professor Wolfgang Schlüter from 1987. Once the dimensions of the project had become apparent, a foundation was created to organise future excavations and to build and operate a museum on the site, and to centralise publicity and documentation. Since 1990 the excavations have been directed by Susanne Wilbers-Rost. Excavations have revealed battle debris along a corridor almost from east to west and little more than wide. A long zig-zagging wall of peat turves and packed sand had apparently been constructed beforehand: concentrations of battle debris in front of it and a dearth behind it testify to the Romans' inability to breach the Germanic tribes' strong defence. Human remains appear to corroborate Tacitus' account of the Roman legionaries' later burial. Coins minted with the countermark VAR, distributed by Varus, also support the identification of the site. As a result, Kalkriese is now perceived to be an event of the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. The includes a large outdoor area with trails leading to a re-creation of part of the earthen wall from the battle and other outdoor exhibits. An observation tower, which holds most of the indoor exhibits, allows visitors to get an overview of the battle site. A second building includes the ticket centre, museum store and a restaurant. The museum houses a large number of artefacts found at the site, including fragments of studded sandals legionaries lost, spearheads, and a Roman officer's ceremonial face-mask, which was originally silver-plated.


Alternative theories

Although the majority of evidence has the battle taking place east and north of Osnabrück and the end at Kalkriese Hill, some scholars and others still adhere to older theories. Moreover, there is controversy among Kalkriese adherents themselves as to the details. The German historians Peter Kehne and Reinhard Wolters believe that the battle was probably in the Detmold area, and that Kalkriese is the site of one of the battles in 15 AD. This theory is, however, in contradiction to Tacitus' account. A number of authors, including the archaeologists Susanne Wilbers-Rost and Günther Moosbauer, historian Ralf Jahn, and British author Adrian Murdoch (see below), believe that the Roman army approached Kalkriese from roughly due east, from Minden, North Rhine-Westphalia, not from south of the Wiehen Hills (i.e., from Detmold). This would have involved a march along the northern edge of the Wiehen Hills, and the army would have passed through flat, open country, devoid of the dense forests and ravines described by Cassius Dio. Historians such as Gustav-Adolf Lehmann and Boris Dreyer counter that Cassius Dio's description is too detailed and differentiated to be thus dismissed. Tony Clunn (see below), the discoverer of the battlefield, and a "southern-approach" proponent, believes that the battered Roman army regrouped north of Ostercappeln, where Varus committed suicide, and that the remnants were finally overcome at the Kalkriese Gap. Peter Oppitz argues for a site in Paderborn, some south of Kalkriese. Based on a reinterpretation of the writings of Tacitus, Paterculus, and Florus and a new analysis of those of Cassius Dio, he proposes that an ambush took place in Varus's summer camp during a peaceful meeting between the Roman commanders and the Germanic leaders.


In popular culture

* The battle is a plot element in several operas of the Baroque era, notably ''Arminio'' by George Frideric Handel, first performed in 1737. * In the 1792 historical novel ''Marcus Flaminius'' by
Cornelia Knight Ellis Cornelia Knight (27 March 1757 - 18 December 1837) was an English gentlewoman, traveller, landscape artist, and writer of novels, verse, journals, and history. She had the acquaintance of many prominent figures in her lifetime, from members ...
, the main character is a survivor of the battle. * ''
Die Hermannsschlacht ''Die Hermannsschlacht'' (translated as ''The Battle of Hermann'' and ''Hermann's Battle'') is a drama in five acts written in 1808 by Heinrich von Kleist. It is based on the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest which took place between the Roman Empire ...
'' is an 1808 drama by Heinrich von Kleist based on the events of the battle. * A re-enactment of the battle is featured in the Nazi produced film '' Ewiger Wald'', which centres on the role of the forest in German culture. * The battle and its aftermath feature in both the novel by
Robert Graves Captain Robert von Ranke Graves (24 July 1895 – 7 December 1985) was a British poet, historical novelist and critic. His father was Alfred Perceval Graves, a celebrated Irish poet and figure in the Gaelic revival; they were both Celtic ...
and the television series '' I, Claudius''. In the novel and TV series, Cassius Chaerea (the praetorian guardsman who later murdered the mad Emperor
Caligula Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (31 August 12 – 24 January 41), better known by his nickname Caligula (), was the third Roman emperor, ruling from 37 until his assassination in 41. He was the son of the popular Roman general Germanicu ...
) is portrayed as one of the few Roman survivors. The Emperor Augustus is shown devastated by the shocking defeat and shouting, "Varus, give me back my legions!" (in the television adaptation, this is changed to "Quinctilus Varus, where are my Eagles?"). * ''
Die Sendung mit der Maus ' (''The Show with the Mouse''), often simply ' (''The Mouse''), is a German children's television series, popular nation-wide for its educational content.Bernhard Borgeest"Von Mäusen und Machern"''Focus, official website. (March 12, 2001) Retr ...
'', a re-enactment for children's television using Playmobil toys to represent the Roman legions. * ''
Give Me Back My Legions! Give may refer to: making someone get or receive something from someone Places * Give, Denmark, a small town ** Give Municipality, a former municipality Music * ''Give'' (Balkan Beat Box album), 2012 album by Balkan Beat Box * ''Give'' (The Bad ...
'' is a 2009 historical novel by Harry Turtledove. It covers the events of Teutoburg Forest from the viewpoints of different major characters. * German folk metal
Heilung Heilung is an experimental folk music band made up of members from Denmark, Norway, and Germany. Their music is based on texts and runic inscriptions from Germanic peoples of the Iron Age, and Viking Age. Heilung describe their music as "amplifie ...
included the poem "Schlammschlacht", which describes the battle from a
Cherusci The Cherusci were a Germanic tribe that inhabited parts of the plains and forests of northwestern Germany in the area of the Weser River and present-day Hanover during the first centuries BC and AD. Roman sources reported they considered themsel ...
point of view, on their 2015 album ''Ofnir''. * John Prados's 2015 board wargame ''The Victory of Arminius: Teutoburg Forest, IX AD'' (published by Turning Point Simulations) allows two players to re-fight the battle of Teutoburg Forest. * ''
Wolves of Rome The wolf (''Canis lupus''; : wolves), also known as the gray wolf or grey wolf, is a large canine native to Eurasia and North America. More than thirty subspecies of ''Canis lupus'' have been recognized, and gray wolves, as popularly u ...
'' is a 2016 historical novel by Valerio Massimo Manfredi. First published in Italian in 2016 as ''Teutoburgo'', republished in English in 2018, it is a fictional recounting of the life of Armin (Hermann) and the events of Teutoburg Forest. * Geraint Jones's novel, ''Blood Forest'' (2017), follows the events of the battle. * '' Barbarians'', a German original series detailing the Roman Imperial campaign through Germania in 9 AD, premiered on Netflix in October 2020. * Richard Humphries's novel 'Sacred Scarlet: The SunChasers Cycle II' (2022), nine months after the battle the protagonist Caelius & his slave Petran travel into Teutoburg Forest; coming across the remains of the legions.


German nationalism

The legacy of the Germanic victory was resurrected with the recovery of the histories of Tacitus in the 15th century, when the figure of Arminius, now known as "Hermann" (a mistranslation of the name "Armin" which has often been incorrectly attributed to Martin Luther), became a nationalistic symbol of ''
Pan-Germanism Pan-Germanism (german: Pangermanismus or '), also occasionally known as Pan-Germanicism, is a pan-nationalist political idea. Pan-Germanists originally sought to unify all the German-speaking people – and possibly also Germanic-speaking ...
''. From then, Teutoburg Forest has been seen as a pivotal clash that ended Roman expansion into northern Europe. This notion became especially prevalent in the 19th century, when it formed an integral part of the mythology of German nationalism. In 1808 the German Heinrich von Kleist's play ''
Die Hermannsschlacht ''Die Hermannsschlacht'' (translated as ''The Battle of Hermann'' and ''Hermann's Battle'') is a drama in five acts written in 1808 by Heinrich von Kleist. It is based on the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest which took place between the Roman Empire ...
'' aroused anti-
Napoleon Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader who ...
ic sentiment, even though it could not be performed under occupation. In 1847, Josef Viktor von Scheffel wrote a lengthy song, "Als die Römer frech geworden" ("When the Romans got cheeky"), relating the tale of the battle with somewhat gloating humour. Copies of the text are found on many souvenirs available at the Detmold monument. The battle had a profound effect on 19th-century German nationalism along with the histories of Tacitus; the Germans, at that time still divided into many states, identified with the Germanic peoples as shared ancestors of one "German people" and came to associate the imperialistic Napoleonic French and
Austro-Hungarian Austria-Hungary, often referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire,, the Dual Monarchy, or Austria, was a constitutional monarchy and great power in Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. It was formed with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of ...
forces with the invading Romans, destined for defeat. As a symbol of unified
Romantic nationalism Romantic nationalism (also national romanticism, organic nationalism, identity nationalism) is the form of nationalism in which the state claims its political legitimacy as an organic consequence of the unity of those it governs. This includes ...
, the ''Hermannsdenkmal'', a monument to Hermann surmounted by a statue, was erected in a forested area near Detmold, believed at that time to be the site of the battle. Paid for largely out of private funds, the monument remained unfinished for decades and was not completed until 1875, after the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71 unified the country. The completed monument was then a symbol of conservative German nationalism. The battle and the Hermannsdenkmal monument are commemorated by the similar
Hermann Heights Monument The Hermann Heights Monument is a statue erected in New Ulm, Minnesota. The statue depicts Arminius (german: Hermann), an ancient Cheruscan, but locals refer to the statue as Hermann the German. The only National Register of Historic Places prop ...
in New Ulm, Minnesota, US, erected by the
Sons of Hermanni A son is a male offspring; a boy or a man in relation to his parents. The female counterpart is a daughter. From a biological perspective, a son constitutes a first degree relative. Social issues In pre-industrial societies and some current ...
, a support organisation for German immigrants to the United States. Hermann, Missouri, claims Hermann (Arminius) as its namesake and a third statue of Hermann was dedicated there in a ceremony on 24 September 2009, celebrating the 2,000th anniversary of the battle. According to journalist David Crossland, "The old nationalism has been replaced by an easy-going
patriotism Patriotism is the feeling of love, devotion, and sense of attachment to one's country. This attachment can be a combination of many different feelings, language relating to one's own homeland, including ethnic, cultural, political or histor ...
that mainly manifests itself at sporting events like the soccer World Cup."


Paintings of the 19th century

File:Caspar David Friedrich 021.jpg, ''Grab des Arminius'' (Grave of
Arminius Arminius ( 18/17 BC – 21 AD) was a chieftain of the Germanic Cherusci tribe who is best known for commanding an alliance of Germanic tribes at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD, in which three Roman legions under the command of ge ...
),
Caspar David Friedrich Caspar David Friedrich (5 September 1774 – 7 May 1840) was a 19th-century German Romantic landscape painter, generally considered the most important German artist of his generation. He is best known for his mid-period allegorical landscape ...
, 1812 File:Hermannsschlacht (1813).jpg, ''Hermannsschlacht'', drawing by Crown prince
Frederick William IV of Prussia Frederick William IV (german: Friedrich Wilhelm IV.; 15 October 17952 January 1861), the eldest son and successor of Frederick William III of Prussia, reigned as King of Prussia from 7 June 1840 to his death on 2 January 1861. Also referred to ...
, 1813 File:Hermann befreit Germania (1818, Karl Russ).jpg, ''Hermann zersprengt die Ketten von Germania'' (Hermann breaks the chains of Germania), Karl Russ, ''circa'' 1818 File:Hermann warrior.jpg, ''Der siegreich vordringende Hermann'' (The victorious advance of Hermann),
Peter Janssen Johann Peter Theodor Janssen (12 December 1844, Düsseldorf – 19 February 1908, Düsseldorf) was a German historical painter. Biography Janssen was born in Düsseldorf, son of the engraver (1817–1894), by whom he was first instructed befo ...
, 1873 File:Akvy Secstievy Battle.jpg, ''Battle of the Teutoburg Forest - Furor Teutonicus'', Paja Jovanović, 1889 File:Ungluecklicher-feldzug-des-germanicus-in-norddeutschland 1-640x419.jpg, ''Unfortunate campaign of Germanicus'', unknown artist, ''circa'' 1900


See also

*
Clades Lolliana The ''clades Lolliana'' or Lollian disaster was a battle in 16 BCE, when the consul Marcus Lollius Paulinus was defeated by the Sicambri, Tencteri and Usipetes, Germanic tribes who had crossed the Rhine.Tacitus, The Annals 1.10 This defeat is ...
* List of ancient Germanic peoples *
Demise of Legio XXII Deiotariana Legio XXII Deiotariana ("Deiotarus' Twenty-Second Legion") was a legion of the Imperial Roman army, founded ca. 48 BC and disbanded during the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132–136. Its cognomen comes from Deiotarus, a Celtic king of Galatia. Its e ...
*
Battle of Cannae The Battle of Cannae () was a key engagement of the Second Punic War between the Roman Republic and Carthage, fought on 2 August 216 BC near the ancient village of Cannae in Apulia, southeast Italy. The Carthaginians and their allies, led by ...
* Battle of Carrhae


Notes


References


Sources


Ancient sources

* Ovid, '' Tristia (Sorrows)'', poetic verses written in 10 and 11 AD *
Marcus Manilius Marcus Manilius (fl. 1st century AD) was a Roman poet, astrologer, and author of a poem in five books called '' Astronomica''. The ''Astronomica'' The author of ''Astronomica'' is neither quoted nor mentioned by any ancient writer. Even his n ...
, ''Astronomica'', a poem written early in the first century AD *
Strabo Strabo''Strabo'' (meaning "squinty", as in strabismus) was a term employed by the Romans for anyone whose eyes were distorted or deformed. The father of Pompey was called "Pompeius Strabo". A native of Sicily so clear-sighted that he could see ...
, ''Geographia'
7:1.4
geographically themed history, written around 18 AD * Marcus Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'
2:117–120
written in 30 AD * Tacitus, '' Annals'
1.31.101.431.55–712.72.412.452.88
a history written in 109 AD *
Suetonius Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (), commonly referred to as Suetonius ( ; c. AD 69 – after AD 122), was a Roman historian who wrote during the early Imperial era of the Roman Empire. His most important surviving work is a set of biographies ...
, '' Lives of the Twelve Caesars: Augustus'
23
''Tiberius'

biographies written in 121 AD * Florus, ''Epitome de T. Livio Bellorum omnium annorum DCC Libri duo'' 2:30, history/
panegyric A panegyric ( or ) is a formal public speech or written verse, delivered in high praise of a person or thing. The original panegyrics were speeches delivered at public events in ancient Athens. Etymology The word originated as a compound of grc, ...
, written in the early second century AD *
Dio Cassius Lucius Cassius Dio (), also known as Dio Cassius ( ), was a Roman historian and senator of maternal Greek origin. He published 80 volumes of the history on ancient Rome, beginning with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy. The volumes documented the ...
, ''Roman History'
56:18–24
written in the first half of the third century AD * Seneca the Younger, "Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium," referenced in Letter 47, Section 10


20th century

* Gesa von Essen, ''Hermannsschlachten. Germanen- und Römerbilder in der Literatur des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts''. Wallstein Verlag, Göttingen 1998, (Hermann Battles. Images of Teutons and Romans in the literature of the 18th and 19th centuries.) * Wolfgang Schlüter (Ed.), ''Römer im Osnabrücker Land. Die archäologischen Untersuchungen in der Kalkrieser-Niewedder Senke''. Rasch, Bramsche 1991, (Romans in the Osnabrück District. The archaeological excavations in the Kalkriese-Niewedde depression.) *
Edward Shepherd Creasy Sir Edward Shepherd Creasy (12 September 1812 – 17 January 1878) was an English historian and jurist. Life He was born the son of a Land Agent in Bexley, Kent, England and educated at Eton College (where he won the Newcastle Scholarship in ...
, '' Germans under Arminius Revolt Against Rome'' in '' The Great Events by Famous Historians, Vol. 2'', compilation of historical essays published in 1905 * *


21st century

* '' Ancient Warfare'' special "The Varian Disaster", June 2009 (essays by various authors, including Clunn and Murdoch) *
Fergus M. Bordewich Fergus M. Bordewich (born November 1, 1947) is an American writer, popular historian, and editor living in San Francisco. He is the author of eight nonfiction books, including a memoir, and an illustrated children's book. Biography Bordewich w ...

"The ambush that changed history"
in '' Smithsonian Magazine'', September 2005, pp. 74–81. * Wilm Brepohl, ''Neue Überlegungen zur Varusschlacht''. Aschendorff, Münster 2004, (Reconsidering the Varus Battle.) * * Tony Clunn, ''The Quest for the Lost Roman Legions'', Savas Beatie LLC, 2005, 372 pp. . The late author discovered the battlefield. This book is a combination of the account of his discovery, the artifacts he found, and his theory about the course of the battle, with that portion recounted in fictional style built around the history. * * * Boris Dreyer, ''Arminius und der Untergang des Varus. Warum die Germanen keine Römer wurden''. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 2009, (Arminius and the downfall of Varus. Why the Teutons did not become Romans.) * *
Adrian Goldsworthy Adrian Keith Goldsworthy (; born 1969) is a British historian and novelist who specialises in ancient Roman history. Education Adrian Goldsworthy attended Westbourne School, Penarth. He then read Ancient and Modern History at St John's College, ...
, ''In The Name of Rome: The Men Who Won The Roman Empire''. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 2004. * Joachim Harnecker, ''Arminius, Varus und das Schlachtfeld von Kalkriese. Eine Einführung in die archäologischen Arbeiten und ihre Ergebnisse''. 2nd ed. Rasch, Bramsche 2002 (Arminius, Varus and the battlefield of Kalkriese. An introduction to the archaeological work and its results.) * Ralf Günter Jahn, ''Der Römisch-Germanische Krieg (9–16 n. Chr.).'' Dissertation, Bonn 2001 (The Roman-Germanic war (9–16 AD).) * Johann-Sebastian Kühlborn, "Auf dem Marsch in die Germania Magna. Roms Krieg gegen die Germanen". In: Martin Müller, Hans-Joahim Schalles und Norbert Zieling (Eds.), ''Colonia Ulpia Traiana. Xanten und sein Umland in römischer Zeit.'' Zabern, Mainz 2008, , S. 67–91. ("On the march into Germania Magna. Rome's war against the Germanic tribes".) * Fabian Link, ''Die Zeitdetektive. Die Falle im Teutoburger Wald: Ein Krimi aus der Römerzeit''. Ravensburger, 2010, . (The time detectives. The events in the Teutoburg Forest: a crime story of Roman times.) (youth fiction) * Ralf-Peter Märtin, ''Die Varusschlacht. Rom und die Germanen''. S. Fischer Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2008, (The Varus Battle. Rome and the Germanic tribes.) * Günther Moosbauer, ''Die Varusschlacht''. Beck'sche Reihe, Verlag C. H. Beck Wissen, München 2009, (The Varus Battle.) * * * * Paweł Rochala, ''Las Teutoburski 9 rok n.e.'' Bellona, Warszawa, 2005. * Michael Sommer, ''Die Arminiusschlacht. Spurensuche im Teutoburger Wald''. Stuttgart 2009 (The Arminius Battle. Search for traces in the Teutoburg Forest.) * Dieter Timpe, ''Römisch-germanische Begegnung in der späten Republik und frühen Kaiserzeit. Voraussetzungen – Konfrontationen – Wirkungen. Gesammelte Studien''. Saur, München & Leipzig, 2006, (Roman-Germanic encounter in the late Republic and early Empire. Conditions – Confrontations – Effects. Collected Studies.) * * Strong on archaeology; "Florus"-based theory. * Peter Oppitz, ''Das Geheimnis der Varusschlacht''. Zadara-Verlag, 2006, (The mystery of the Varus Battle.) Paderborn would have been the site of the battle. * * * Rainer Wiegels (ed.), ''Die Varusschlacht. Wendepunkt der Geschichte?'' Theiss, Stuttgart 2007, (The Varus Battle. Turning point of history?) * Reinhard Wolters, ''Die Römer in Germanien''. 5th ed. Verlag C.H. Beck, München 2006, (The Romans in Germania.) * Reinhard Wolters, ''Die Schlacht im Teutoburger Wald. Arminius, Varus und das römische Germanien''. München 2008, (The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. Arminius, Varus and Roman Germania.)


External links

* Fergus M. Bordewich: '
The Ambush That Changed History
'' Smithsonian Magazine, September 2005
Official site of the Kalkriese foundation
* Jona Lendering
The Battle in the Teutoburg Forest
at livius.org
Arminius / Varus. Die Varusschlacht im Jahre 9 n. Chr.
, Internet-Portal Westfälische Geschichte, LWL – Institut für westfälische Regionalgeschichte, Münster


Varusbattle in Netherland
{{DEFAULTSORT:Teutoburg Forest 1st-century battles 0s conflicts 0s in the Roman Empire AD 9 Ambushes in Europe Arminius Augustus Battles involving Germanic peoples Battles involving the Roman Empire Cherusci History of Europe Germania Germanic paganism Marsi (Germanic) Night battles Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16) Wiehen Hills