Coordinates: 33°6′N 44°6′E / 33.100°N 44.100°E / 33.100; 44.100

Akkadian
Akkadian Empire

𒆳𒌵𒆠 māt Akkadi  (Akkadian) 𒀀𒂵𒉈𒆠 a-ga-de3KI  (Sumerian)

c. 2334 – 2154 BC

Map of the Akkadian
Akkadian Empire
Empire (brown) and the directions in which military campaigns were conducted (yellow arrows)

Capital Akkad

Languages Akkadian Sumerian language
Sumerian language (declining)

Religion Akkadian

Government Monarchy

šarrum

 •  c. 2334–2279 BC Sargon (first)

 •  c. 2170–2154 BC Shu-turul (last)

Historical era Bronze Age

 •  Established c. 2334 BC

 •  Conquests of Sargon of Akkad c. 2340 – 2284 BC

 •  Disestablished c. 2154 BC

Area

 •  2350 BC[1] 30,000 km2 (12,000 sq mi)

 •  2300 BC[1] 650,000 km2 (250,000 sq mi)

 •  2250 BC[1] 800,000 km2 (310,000 sq mi)

 •  2200 BC[1] 250,000 km2 (97,000 sq mi)

Preceded by Succeeded by

Early Dynastic Period

Second Mariote Kingdom

Umma

Gutian Period (Sumer)

Third Mariote Kingdom

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Ancient history

Preceded by Prehistory

Ancient Near East

Egyptian Old Kingdom Sumer Uruk Ur Jiroft culture Ebla Mari Minoan Crete Oxus civilisation Akkadian
Akkadian Empire Gutian dynasty Lullubi Guti Neo-Sumerian Empire Egyptian Middle Kingdom Yamhad Qatna First Dynasty of Isin Old Assyrian Empire Old Babylonian Empire Hattians Hurrians Amurru kingdom Apum Isuwa Nuhašše Kurda Ṭābetu Tepe Sialk Teppe Hasanlu Shahr-e Sukhteh Tureng Tepe Godin Tepe Marlik Kizzuwatna Tepe Hissar Eshnunna Egyptian New Kingdom Hittite Empire Kassite dynasty Amorites Arameans Kingdom of Edom Kingdom of Moab Kingdom of Ammon Awan dynasty Shimashki Dynasty Chaldea Mitanni
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Classical antiquity

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Mesoamerica

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See also

History of the world

Ancient maritime history Protohistory Axial Age Iron Age Historiography Ancient literature Ancient warfare Cradle of civilization

Followed by the Postclassical Era

v t e

The Akkadian
Akkadian Empire
Empire (/əˈkeɪdiən/)[2] was the first ancient Semitic-speaking empire of Mesopotamia, centered in the city of Akkad /ˈækæd/[3] and its surrounding region, also called Akkad in ancient Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia in the Bible. The empire united Akkadian
Akkadian and Sumerian speakers under one rule. The Akkadian
Akkadian Empire
Empire exercised influence across Mesopotamia, the Levant, and Anatolia, sending military expeditions as far south as Dilmun
Dilmun and Magan (modern Bahrain
Bahrain and Oman) in the Arabian Peninsula.[4] During the 3rd millennium BC, there developed a very intimate cultural symbiosis between the Sumerians and the Akkadians, which included widespread bilingualism.[5] Akkadian
Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language somewhere between the 3rd and the 2nd millennia BC (the exact dating being a matter of debate).[6] The Akkadian
Akkadian Empire
Empire reached its political peak between the 24th and 22nd centuries BC, following the conquests by its founder Sargon of Akkad.[7] Under Sargon and his successors, the Akkadian language
Akkadian language was briefly imposed on neighboring conquered states such as Elam
Elam and Gutium. Akkad is sometimes regarded as the first empire in history, though the meaning of this term is not precise, and there are earlier Sumerian claimants.[8][9] After the fall of the Akkadian
Akkadian Empire, the people of Mesopotamia eventually coalesced into two major Akkadian-speaking nations: Assyria in the north, and, a few centuries later, Babylonia
Babylonia in the south.

Contents

1 History of research 2 Dating and periodization

2.1 Timeline of rulers

3 Development of the empire

3.1 Pre-Sargonic Akkad 3.2 Sargon of Akkad 3.3 Rimush
Rimush and Manishtushu 3.4 Naram-Sin 3.5 Collapse

3.5.1 Drought

4 Government 5 Economy 6 Culture

6.1 Art 6.2 Language 6.3 Poet–priestess Enheduanna 6.4 Curse of Akkad

7 Technology 8 Achievements 9 See also 10 Notes

10.1 Bibliography

11 External links

History of research[edit] The Bible
Bible refers to Akkad in Genesis 10:10[10], which states that the beginning of Nimrod's kingdom was in the land of Akkad. Nimrod's historical identity is unknown, but some have compared him with the legendary Gilgamesh, founder of Uruk.[11][12] Today, scholars have documented some 7,000 texts from the Akkadian
Akkadian period, written in both Sumerian and Akkadian. Many later texts from the successor states of Assyria
Assyria and Babylonia
Babylonia also deal with the Akkadian
Akkadian Empire.[12] Understanding of the Akkadian
Akkadian Empire
Empire continues to be hampered by the fact that its capital Akkad has not yet been located, despite numerous attempts.[13][14] Precise dating of archaeological sites is hindered by the fact that there are no clear distinctions between artifact assemblages thought to stem from the preceding Early Dynastic period, and those thought to be Akkadian. Likewise, material that is thought to be Akkadian
Akkadian continues to be in use into the Ur III period.[15] Many of the more recent insights on the Akkadian
Akkadian Empire
Empire have come from excavations in the Upper Khabur area in modern northeastern Syria which was to become a part of Assyria
Assyria after the fall of Akkad. For example, excavations at Tell Mozan (ancient Urkesh) brought to light a sealing of Tar'am-Agade, a previously unknown daughter of Naram-Sin, who was possibly married to an unidentified local endan (ruler).[16] The excavators at nearby Tell Leilan
Tell Leilan (ancient Shekhna/Shubat-Enlil) have used the results from their investigations to argue that the Akkadian
Akkadian Empire
Empire came to an end due to a sudden drought, the so-called 4.2 kiloyear event.[17] The impact of this climate event on Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia in general, and on the Akkadian
Akkadian Empire
Empire in particular, continues to be hotly debated.[18] Excavation at the modern site of Tell Brak
Tell Brak has suggested that the Akkadians
Akkadians rebuilt a city ("Brak" or "Nagar") on this site, for use as an administrative center. The city included two large buildings including a complex with temple, offices, courtyard, and large ovens.[19][20] Dating and periodization[edit] The Akkadian
Akkadian Period is generally dated to either: c. 2334 BC – c. 2154 BC (according to the middle chronology timeline of the Ancient Near East), or c. 2270 BC – c. 2083 BC (according to the short chronology timeline of the Ancient Near East.) It was preceded by the Early Dynastic Period of Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia (ED) and succeeded by the Ur III Period, although both transitions are blurry. For example: it is likely that the rise of Sargon of Akkad
Sargon of Akkad coincided with the late ED Period and that the final Akkadian
Akkadian kings ruled simultaneously with the Gutian kings alongside rulers at the city-states of both: Uruk
Uruk and Lagash. The Akkadian
Akkadian Period is contemporary with: EB IV (in Israel), EB IVA and EJ IV (in Syria), and EB IIIB (in Turkey.)[12][21] Timeline of rulers[edit] Main article: List of kings of Akkad The relative order of Akkadian
Akkadian kings is clear. The absolute dates of their reigns are approximate (as with all dates prior to the late Bronze Age
Bronze Age collapse c. 1200 BC).[22]

Ruler Middle Chronology All dates BC Short Chronology All dates BC

Sargon 2334–2279

Rimush 2278–2270

Manishtushu 2269–2255

Naram-Sin 2254–2218

Shar-Kali-Sharri 2217–2193

Interregnum 2192–2190

Dudu 2189–2169

Shu-turul 2168–2154

Development of the empire[edit] Pre-Sargonic Akkad[edit] The Akkadian
Akkadian Empire
Empire takes its name from the region and the city of Akkad, both of which were localized in the general confluence area of the Tigris
Tigris and Euphrates
Euphrates Rivers. Although the city of Akkad has not yet been identified on the ground, it is known from various textual sources. Among these is at least one text predating the reign of Sargon. Together with the fact that the name Akkad is of non-Akkadian origin, this suggests that the city of Akkad may have already been occupied in pre-Sargonic times.[13][23] Sargon of Akkad[edit] Main article: Sargon of Akkad

Bronze head of an Akkadian, probably an image of Manishtusu or Naram-Sin; descendants of Sargon (National Museum of Iraq).

Sargon of Akkad
Sargon of Akkad (Sharru-kin = "legitimate king", possibly a title he took on gaining power) defeated and captured Lugal-zage-si
Lugal-zage-si in the Battle of Uruk
Uruk and conquered his empire. The earliest records in the Akkadian language
Akkadian language date to the time of Sargon. Sargon was claimed to be the son of La'ibum or Itti-Bel, a humble gardener, and possibly a hierodule, or priestess to Ishtar
Ishtar or Inanna. One legend related to Sargon in Assyrian times says that

My mother was a changeling, my father I knew not. The brothers of my father loved the hills. My city is Azurpiranu (the wilderness herb fields), which is situated on the banks of the Euphrates. My changeling mother conceived me, in secret she bore me. She set me in a basket of rushes, with bitumen she sealed my lid. She cast me into the river which rose not over me. The river bore me up and carried me to Akki, the drawer of water. Akki, the drawer of water, took me as his son and reared me. Akki the drawer of water, appointed me as his gardener. While I was gardener Ishtar
Ishtar granted me her love, and for four and (fifty?) ... years I exercised kingship.[24]

Later claims made on behalf of Sargon were that his mother was an "entu" priestess (high priestess). The claims might have been made to ensure a descendancy of nobility, considering only a highly placed family can be made such a position.[25]

Kings of the Akkad Dynasty.

Originally a cupbearer (Rabshakeh) to a king of Kish with a Semitic name, Ur-Zababa, Sargon thus became a gardener, responsible for the task of clearing out irrigation canals. This gave him access to a disciplined corps of workers, who also may have served as his first soldiers. Displacing Ur-Zababa, Sargon was crowned king, and he entered upon a career of foreign conquest.[26] Four times he invaded Syria
Syria and Canaan, and he spent three years thoroughly subduing the countries of "the west" to unite them with Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia "into a single empire". However, Sargon took this process further, conquering many of the surrounding regions to create an empire that reached westward as far as the Mediterranean Sea
Mediterranean Sea and perhaps Cyprus
Cyprus (Kaptara); northward as far as the mountains (a later Hittite text asserts he fought the Hattian king Nurdaggal of Burushanda, well into Anatolia); eastward over Elam; and as far south as Magan (Oman) — a region over which he reigned for purportedly 56 years, though only four "year-names" survive. He consolidated his dominion over his territories by replacing the earlier opposing rulers with noble citizens of Akkad, his native city where loyalty would thus be ensured.[27] Trade extended from the silver mines of Anatolia
Anatolia to the lapis lazuli mines in modern Afghanistan, the cedars of Lebanon
Lebanon and the copper of Magan. This consolidation of the city-states of Sumer
Sumer and Akkad reflected the growing economic and political power of Mesopotamia. The empire's breadbasket was the rain-fed agricultural system of Assyria and a chain of fortresses was built to control the imperial wheat production. Images of Sargon were erected on the shores of the Mediterranean, in token of his victories, and cities and palaces were built at home with the spoils of the conquered lands. Elam
Elam and the northern part of Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia (Assyria/Subartu) were also subjugated, and rebellions in Sumer
Sumer were put down. Contract tablets have been found dated in the years of the campaigns against Canaan
Canaan and against Sarlak, king of Gutium. He also boasted of having subjugated the "four quarters" — the lands surrounding Akkad to the north (Assyria), the south (Sumer), the east (Elam), and the west (Martu). Some of the earliest historiographic texts (ABC 19, 20) suggest he rebuilt the city of Babylon (Bab-ilu) in its new location near Akkad.[28] Sargon, throughout his long life, showed special deference to the Sumerian deities, particularly Inanna
Inanna (Ishtar), his patroness, and Zababa, the warrior god of Kish. He called himself "The anointed priest of Anu" and "the great ensi of Enlil" and his daughter, Enheduanna, was installed as priestess to Nanna at the temple in Ur. Troubles multiplied toward the end of his reign. A later Babylonian text states:

In his old age, all the lands revolted against him, and they besieged him in Akkad (the city) [but] he went forth to battle and defeated them, he knocked them over and destroyed their vast army.

It refers to his campaign in "Elam", where he defeated a coalition army led by the King of Awan and forced the vanquished to become his vassals.[29] Also shortly after, another revolt took place:

the Subartu
Subartu (mountainous tribes of Assyria) the upper country—in their turn attacked, but they submitted to his arms, and Sargon settled their habitations, and he smote them grievously.

Rimush
Rimush and Manishtushu[edit] Main articles: Rimush
Rimush and Manishtushu Sargon had crushed opposition even at old age. These difficulties broke out again in the reign of his sons, where revolts broke out during the nine-year reign of Rimush
Rimush (2278–2270 BC), who fought hard to retain the empire, and was successful until he was assassinated by some of his own courtiers. Rimush's elder brother, Manishtushu (2269–2255 BC) succeeded him. The latter seems to have fought a sea battle against 32 kings who had gathered against him and took control over their pre-Arab country, consisting of modern-day United Arab Emirates and Oman. Despite the success, like his brother he seems to have been assassinated in a palace conspiracy.[30] Naram-Sin[edit] Main article: Naram-Sin of Akkad

Victory Stele of Naram-Sin,[31] celebrating victory against the Lullubi
Lullubi from Zagros
Zagros 2260 BC. He is wearing a horned helmet, a symbol of divinity, and is also portrayed in a larger scale in comparison to others to emphasize his superiority.[32] Brought back from Sippar
Sippar to Susa
Susa as war prize in the 12th century BC.

Naram-Sin Rock Relief at Darband-i-Gawr, Qaradagh Mountain, Sulaymaniyah Governorate, Iraqi Kurdistan

Manishtushu's son and successor, Naram-Sin (2254–2218 BC), due to vast military conquests, assumed the imperial title "King Naram-Sin, king of the four quarters" (Lugal Naram-Sîn, Šar kibrat 'arbaim), the four quarters as a reference to the entire world. He was also for the first time in Sumerian culture, addressed as "the god (Sumerian = DINGIR, Akkadian
Akkadian = ilu) of Agade" (Akkad), in opposition to the previous religious belief that kings were only representatives of the people towards the gods.[32][33] He also faced revolts at the start of his reign,[34] but quickly crushed them. Naram-Sin also recorded the Akkadian
Akkadian conquest of Ebla
Ebla as well as Armanum and its king.[35] Armanum location is debated; it is sometimes identified with a Syrian kingdom mentioned in the tablets of Ebla
Ebla as Armi, the location of Armi is also debated; while historian Adelheid Otto identifies it with the Citadel of Bazi – Tall Banat complex on the Euphrates
Euphrates River between Ebla
Ebla and Tell Brak,[36][37] others like Wayne Horowitz identify it with Aleppo.[38] Further, if most scholars place Armanum in Syria, Michael C. Astour believes it to be located north of the Hamrin Mountains
Hamrin Mountains in northern Iraq.[39] To better police Syria, he built a royal residence at Tell Brak, a crossroads at the heart of the Khabur River basin of the Jezirah. Naram-Sin campaigned against Magan which also revolted; Naram-Sin "marched against Magan and personally caught Mandannu, its king", where he instated garrisons to protect the main roads. The chief threat seemed to be coming from the northern Zagros
Zagros Mountains, the Lulubis and the Gutians. A campaign against the Lullubi
Lullubi led to the carving of the "Victory Stele of Naram-Suen", now in the Louvre. Hittite sources claim Naram-Sin of Akkad
Naram-Sin of Akkad even ventured into Anatolia, battling the Hittite and Hurrian
Hurrian kings Pamba of Hatti, Zipani of Kanesh, and 15 others. This newfound Akkadian
Akkadian wealth may have been based upon benign climatic conditions, huge agricultural surpluses and the confiscation of the wealth of other peoples.[40]

Inscription of Naram Sin found at the city of Marad
Marad in Iraq, c. 2260 BC

The economy was highly planned. Grain was cleaned, and rations of grain and oil were distributed in standardized vessels made by the city's potters. Taxes were paid in produce and labour on public walls, including city walls, temples, irrigation canals and waterways, producing huge agricultural surpluses.[41] In later Assyrian and Babylonian texts, the name Akkad, together with Sumer, appears as part of the royal title, as in the Sumerian LUGAL KI-EN-GI KI-URI or Akkadian
Akkadian Šar māt Šumeri u Akkadi,[42] translating to "king of Sumer
Sumer and Akkad".[43] This title was assumed by the king who seized control of Nippur,[42] the intellectual and religious center of southern Mesopotamia. During the Akkadian
Akkadian period, the Akkadian language
Akkadian language became the lingua franca of the Middle East, and was officially used for administration, although the Sumerian language
Sumerian language remained as a spoken and literary language. The spread of Akkadian
Akkadian stretched from Syria
Syria to Elam, and even the Elamite language
Elamite language was temporarily written in Mesopotamian cuneiform. Akkadian
Akkadian texts later found their way to far-off places, from Egypt (in the Amarna Period) and Anatolia, to Persia
Persia (Behistun). Collapse[edit] The empire of Akkad fell, perhaps in the 22nd century BC, within 180 years of its founding, ushering in a "Dark Age" with no prominent imperial authority until Third Dynasty of Ur. The region's political structure may have reverted to the status quo ante of local governance by city-states.[44] Shu-Durul appears to have restored some centralized authority, however, he was unable to prevent the empire eventually collapsing outright from the invasion of barbarian peoples from the Zagros Mountains known as the Gutians. Little is known about the Gutian period, or how long it endured. Cuneiform
Cuneiform sources suggest that the Gutians' administration showed little concern for maintaining agriculture, written records, or public safety; they reputedly released all farm animals to roam about Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia freely and soon brought about famine and rocketing grain prices. The Sumerian king Ur-Nammu
Ur-Nammu (2112–2095 BC) cleared the Gutians from Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia during his reign. The Sumerian King List, describing the Akkadian
Akkadian Empire
Empire after the death of Shar-kali-shari, states:

Who was king? Who was not king? Irgigi the king; Nanum, the king; Imi the king; Ilulu, the king—the four of them were kings but reigned only three years. Dudu reigned 21 years; Shu-Turul, the son of Dudu, reigned 15 years. ... Agade was defeated and its kingship carried off to Uruk. In Uruk, Ur-ningin reigned 7 years, Ur-gigir, son of Ur-ningin, reigned 6 years; Kuda reigned 6 years; Puzur-ili reigned 5 years, Ur-Utu reigned 6 years. Uruk
Uruk was smitten with weapons and its kingship carried off by the Gutian hordes.

However, there are no known year-names or other archaeological evidence verifying any of these later kings of Akkad or Uruk, apart from a single artefact referencing king Dudu of Akkad. The named kings of Uruk
Uruk may have been contemporaries of the last kings of Akkad, but in any event could not have been very prominent.

In the Gutian hordes, (first reigned) a nameless king; (then) Imta reigned 3 years as king; Shulme reigned 6 years; Elulumesh reigned 6 years; Inimbakesh reigned 5 years; Igeshuash reigned 6 years; Iarlagab reigned 15 years; Ibate reigned 3 years; ... reigned 3 years; Kurum reigned 1 year; ... reigned 3 years; ... reigned 2 years; Iararum reigned 2 years; Ibranum reigned 1 year; Hablum reigned 2 years; Puzur-Sin son of Hablum reigned 7 years; Iarlaganda reigned 7 years; ... reigned 7 years; ... reigned 40 days. Total 21 kings reigned 91 years, 40 days.

"Cylinder Seal with King or God and Vanquished Lion" (Old Akkadian).[45] The Walters Art Museum.

The period between c. 2112 BC and 2004 BC is known as the Ur III period. Documents again began to be written in Sumerian, although Sumerian was becoming a purely literary or liturgical language, much as Latin later would be in Medieval
Medieval Europe.[24] One explanation for the end of the Akkadian
Akkadian empire is simply that the Akkadian
Akkadian dynasty could not maintain its political supremacy over other independently powerful city-states.[46][44] Drought[edit] Main article: 4.2 kiloyear event One theory associates regional decline at the end of the Akkadian period (and of the First Intermediary Period
First Intermediary Period following the Old Kingdom in Ancient Egypt) was associated with rapidly increasing aridity, and failing rainfall in the region of the Ancient Near East, caused by a global centennial-scale drought.[47][48] Harvey Weiss has shown that "archaeological and soil-stratigraphic data define the origin, growth, and collapse of Subir, the third millennium rain-fed agriculture civilization of northern Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia on the Habur Plains of Syria. At 2200 BC, a marked increase in aridity and wind circulation, subsequent to a volcanic eruption, induced a considerable degradation of land-use conditions. After four centuries of urban life, this abrupt climatic change evidently caused abandonment of Tell Leilan, regional desertion, and collapse of the Akkadian
Akkadian empire based in southern Mesopotamia. Synchronous collapse in adjacent regions suggests that the impact of the abrupt climatic change was extensive".[17] Peter B. deMenocal, has shown "there was an influence of the North Atlantic Oscillation on the stream flow of the Tigris
Tigris and Euphrates
Euphrates at this time, which led to the collapse of the Akkadian
Akkadian Empire".[49] Excavation at Tell Leilan
Tell Leilan suggests that this site was abandoned soon after the city's massive walls were constructed, its temple rebuilt and its grain production reorganised. The debris, dust and sand that followed show no trace of human activity. Soil samples show fine wind-blown sand, no trace of earthworm activity, reduced rainfall and indications of a drier and windier climate. Evidence shows that skeleton-thin sheep and cattle died of drought, and up to 28,000 people abandoned the site, seeking wetter areas elsewhere. Tell Brak shrank in size by 75%. Trade collapsed. Nomadic herders such as the Amorites
Amorites moved herds closer to reliable water suppliers, bringing them into conflict with Akkadian
Akkadian populations. This climate-induced collapse seems to have affected the whole of the Middle East, and to have coincided with the collapse of the Egyptian Old Kingdom.[17] This collapse of rain-fed agriculture in the Upper Country meant the loss to southern Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia of the agrarian subsidies which had kept the Akkadian
Akkadian Empire
Empire solvent. Water levels within the Tigris
Tigris and Euphrates
Euphrates fell 1.5 metres beneath the level of 2600 BC, and although they stabilised for a time during the following Ur III period, rivalries between pastoralists and farmers increased. Attempts were undertaken to prevent the former from herding their flocks in agricultural lands, such as the building of a 180 km (112 mi) wall known as the "Repeller of the Amorites" between the Tigris
Tigris and Euphrates
Euphrates under the Ur III ruler Shu-Sin. Such attempts led to increased political instability; meanwhile, severe depression occurred to re-establish demographic equilibrium with the less favourable climatic conditions.[50][51][52] Richard Zettler has critiqued the drought theory, observing that the chronology of the Akkadian
Akkadian empire is very uncertain and that available evidence is not sufficient to show its economic dependence on the northern areas excavated by Weiss and others. He also criticizes Weiss for taking Akkadian
Akkadian writings literally to describe certain catastrophic events.[53] According to Joan Oates, at Tell Brak
Tell Brak the soil "signal" associated with the drought lies below the level of Naram-Sin's palace. However, evidence

may suggest a tightening of Akkadian
Akkadian control following the Brak 'event', for example the construction of the heavily fortified 'palace' itself and the apparent introduction of greater numbers of Akkadian
Akkadian as opposed to local officials, perhaps a reflection of unrest in the countryside of the type that often follows some natural catastrophe.

Furthermore, Brak remained occupied and functional after the fall of the Akkadians.[54] Government[edit] The Akkadian
Akkadian government formed a "classical standard" with which all future Mesopotamian states compared themselves. Traditionally, the ensi was the highest functionary of the Sumerian city-states. In later traditions, one became an ensi by marrying the goddess Inanna, legitimising the rulership through divine consent. Initially, the monarchical lugal (lu = man, gal =Great) was subordinate to the priestly ensi, and was appointed at times of troubles, but by later dynastic times, it was the lugal who had emerged as the preeminent role, having his own "é" (= house) or "palace", independent from the temple establishment. By the time of Mesalim, whichever dynasty controlled the city of Kish was recognised as šar kiššati (= king of Kish), and was considered preeminent in Sumer, possibly because this was where the two rivers approached, and whoever controlled Kish ultimately controlled the irrigation systems of the other cities downstream. As Sargon extended his conquest from the "Lower Sea" (Persian Gulf), to the "Upper Sea" (Mediterranean), it was felt that he ruled "the totality of the lands under heaven", or "from sunrise to sunset", as contemporary texts put it. Under Sargon, the ensis generally retained their positions, but were seen more as provincial governors. The title šar kiššati became recognised as meaning "lord of the universe". Sargon is even recorded as having organised naval expeditions to Dilmun
Dilmun (Bahrain) and Magan, amongst the first organised military naval expeditions in history. Whether he also did in the case of the Mediterranean with the kingdom of Kaptara (possibly Cyprus), as claimed in later documents, is more questionable. With Naram-Sin, Sargon's grandson, this went further than with Sargon, with the king not only being called "Lord of the Four Quarters (of the Earth)", but also elevated to the ranks of the dingir (= gods), with his own temple establishment. Previously a ruler could, like Gilgamesh, become divine after death but the Akkadian
Akkadian kings, from Naram-Sin onward, were considered gods on earth in their lifetimes. Their portraits showed them of larger size than mere mortals and at some distance from their retainers.[55] One strategy adopted by both Sargon and Naram-Sin, to maintain control of the country, was to install their daughters, Enheduanna
Enheduanna and Emmenanna respectively, as high priestess to Sin, the Akkadian
Akkadian version of the Sumerian moon deity, Nanna, at Ur, in the extreme south of Sumer; to install sons as provincial ensi governors in strategic locations; and to marry their daughters to rulers of peripheral parts of the Empire
Empire ( Urkesh
Urkesh and Marhashe). A well documented case of the latter is that of Naram-Sin's daughter Tar'am-Agade at Urkesh.[56] Records at the Brak administrative complex suggest that the Akkadians appointed locals as tax collectors.[57] Economy[edit] The population of Akkad, like nearly all pre-modern states, was entirely dependent upon the agricultural systems of the region, which seem to have had two principal centres: the irrigated farmlands of southern Iraq
Iraq that traditionally had a yield of 30 grains returned for each grain sown and the rain-fed agriculture of northern Iraq, known as the "Upper Country." Southern Iraq
Iraq during Akkadian
Akkadian period seems to have been approaching its modern rainfall level of less than 20 mm (1 in) per year, with the result that agriculture was totally dependent upon irrigation. Before the Akkadian
Akkadian period the progressive salinisation of the soils, produced by poorly drained irrigation, had been reducing yields of wheat in the southern part of the country, leading to the conversion to more salt-tolerant barley growing. Urban populations there had peaked already by 2,600 BC, and demographic pressures were high, contributing to the rise of militarism apparent immediately before the Akkadian
Akkadian period (as seen in the Stele of the Vultures
Stele of the Vultures of Eannatum). Warfare between city states had led to a population decline, from which Akkad provided a temporary respite.[58] It was this high degree of agricultural productivity in the south that enabled the growth of the highest population densities in the world at this time, giving Akkad its military advantage. The water table in this region was very high and replenished regularly—by winter storms in the headwaters of the Tigris
Tigris and Euphrates
Euphrates from October to March and from snow-melt from March to July. Flood levels, that had been stable from about 3,000 to 2,600 BC, had started falling, and by the Akkadian
Akkadian period were a half-meter to a meter lower than recorded previously. Even so, the flat country and weather uncertainties made flooding much more unpredictable than in the case of the Nile; serious deluges seem to have been a regular occurrence, requiring constant maintenance of irrigation ditches and drainage systems. Farmers were recruited into regiments for this work from August to October—a period of food shortage—under the control of city temple authorities, thus acting as a form of unemployment relief. Gwendolyn Leick has[59] suggested that this was Sargon's original employment for the king of Kish, giving him experience in effectively organising large groups of men; a tablet reads, "Sargon, the king, to whom Enlil
Enlil permitted no rival—5,400 warriors ate bread daily before him".[60]

Sea shell of a murex bearing the name of Rimush, king of Kish, c. 2270 BC, Louvre, traded from the Mediterranean coast where it was used by Canaanites
Canaanites to make a purple dye.

Harvest was in the late spring and during the dry summer months. Nomadic Amorites
Amorites from the northwest would pasture their flocks of sheep and goats to graze on the stubble and be watered from the river and irrigation canals. For this privilege, they would have to pay a tax in wool, meat, milk, and cheese to the temples, who would distribute these products to the bureaucracy and priesthood. In good years, all would go well, but in bad years, wild winter pastures would be in short supply, nomads would seek to pasture their flocks in the grain fields, and conflicts with farmers would result. It would appear that the subsidizing of southern populations by the import of wheat from the north of the Empire
Empire temporarily overcame this problem,[61] and it seems to have allowed economic recovery and a growing population within this region. As a result, Sumer
Sumer and Akkad had a surplus of agricultural products but was short of almost everything else, particularly metal ores, timber and building stone, all of which had to be imported. The spread of the Akkadian
Akkadian state as far as the "silver mountain" (possibly the Taurus Mountains), the "cedars" of Lebanon, and the copper deposits of Magan, was largely motivated by the goal of securing control over these imports. One tablet reads "Sargon, the king of Kish, triumphed in thirty-four battles (over the cities) up to the edge of the sea (and) destroyed their walls. He made the ships from Meluhha, the ships from Magan (and) the ships from Dilmun
Dilmun tie up alongside the quay of Agade. Sargon the king prostrated himself before (the god) Dagan (and) made supplication to him; (and) he (Dagan) gave him the upper land, namely Mari, Yarmuti, (and) Ebla, up to the Cedar Forest (and) up to the Silver
Silver Mountain". Culture[edit] Art[edit] In art, there was a great emphasis on the kings of the dynasty, alongside much that continued earlier Sumerian art. Little architecture remains. In large works and small ones such as seals, the degree of realism was considerably increased,[62] but the seals show a "grim world of cruel conflict, of danger and uncertainty, a world in which man is subjected without appeal to the incomprehensible acts of distant and fearful divinities who he must serve but cannot love. This sombre mood ... remained characteristic of Mesopotamian art..."[63] Language[edit] See also: Sumerian language During the 3rd millennium BC, there developed a very intimate cultural symbiosis between the Sumerians and the Akkadians, which included widespread bilingualism.[5] The influence of Sumerian on Akkadian
Akkadian (and vice versa) is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a massive scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence.[5] This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian
Akkadian in the third millennium as a sprachbund.[5] Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language somewhere around 2000 BC (the exact dating being a matter of debate),[6] but Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary, and scientific language in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia until the 1st century AD.[64] Poet–priestess Enheduanna[edit] Sumerian literature
Sumerian literature continued in rich development during the Akkadian period. Enheduanna, the "wife (Sumerian dam = high priestess) of Nanna [the Sumerian moon god] and daughter of Sargon"[65] of the temple of Sin at Ur, who lived c. 2285–2250 BC, is the first poet in history whose name is known. Her known works include hymns to the goddess Inanna, the Exaltation of Inanna
Inanna and In-nin sa-gur-ra. A third work, the Temple Hymns, a collection of specific hymns, addresses the sacred temples and their occupants, the deity to whom they were consecrated. The works of this poet are significant, because although they start out using the third person, they shift to the first person voice of the poet herself, and they mark a significant development in the use of cuneiform. As poet, princess, and priestess, she was a person who, according to William W Hallo, "set standards in all three of her roles for many succeeding centuries"[66] In the Exultation of Inanna,

Enheduanna
Enheduanna depicts Inanna
Inanna as disciplining mankind as a goddess of battle. She thereby unites the warlike Akkadian
Akkadian Ishtar's qualities to those of the gentler Sumerian goddess of love and fecundity. She likens Inanna
Inanna to a great storm bird who swoops down on the lesser gods and sends them fluttering off like surprised bats. Then, in probably the most interesting part of the hymn, Enheduanna
Enheduanna herself steps forward in the first person to recite her own past glories, establishing her credibility, and explaining her present plight. She has been banished as high priestess from the temple in the city of Ur and from Uruk
Uruk and exiled to the steppe. She begs the moon god Nanna to intercede for her because the city of Uruk, under the ruler Lugalanne, has rebelled against Sargon. The rebel, Lugalanne, has even destroyed the temple Eanna, one of the greatest temples in the ancient world, and then made advances on his sister-in-law.[67]

Curse of Akkad[edit] Later material described how the fall of Akkad was due to Nara-Sin's attack upon the city of Nipper. When prompted by a pair of inauspicious oracles, the king sacked the E-kur temple, supposedly protected by the god Enlil, head of the pantheon. As a result of this, eight chief deities of the Anunnaki
Anunnaki pantheon were supposed to have come together and withdrawn their support from Akkad.[68]

For the first time since cities were built and founded, The great agricultural tracts produced no grain, The inundated tracts produced no ostriches, The irrigated orchards produced neither wine nor syrup, The gathered clouds did not rain, the masgurum did not grow. At that time, one shekel's worth of oil was only one-half quart, One shekel's worth of grain was only one-half quart. . . . These sold at such prices in the markets of all the cities! He who slept on the roof, died on the roof, He who slept in the house, had no burial, People were flailing at themselves from hunger.[69]

The kings of Akkad were legendary among later Mesopotamian civilizations, with Sargon understood as the prototype of a strong and wise leader, and his grandson Naram-Sin considered the wicked and impious leader (Unheilsherrscher in the analysis of Hans Gustav Güterbock) who brought ruin upon his kingdom.[70][71] Technology[edit]

Bassetki Statue
Bassetki Statue from the reign of Naram-Sin of Akkad
Naram-Sin of Akkad with an inscription mentioning the construction of a temple in Akkad

Tablets from the periods reads, "(From the earliest days) no-one had made a statue of lead, (but) Rimush
Rimush king of Kish, had a statue of himself made of lead. It stood before Enlil; and it recited his (Rimush's) virtues to the idu of the gods". The copper Bassetki Statue, cast with the lost wax method, testifies to the high level of skill that craftsmen achieved during the Akkadian
Akkadian period.[72] Achievements[edit] The empire was bound together by roads, along which there was a regular postal service. Clay seals that took the place of stamps bear the names of Sargon and his son. A cadastral survey seems also to have been instituted, and one of the documents relating to it states that a certain Uru-Malik, whose name appears to indicate his Canaanite origin, was governor of the land of the Amorites, or Amurru as the semi-nomadic people of Syria
Syria and Canaan
Canaan were called in Akkadian. It is probable that the first collection of astronomical observations and terrestrial omens was made for a library established by Sargon. The earliest "year names", whereby each year of a king's reign was named after a significant event performed by that king, date from Sargon's reign. Lists of these "year names" henceforth became a calendrical system used in most independent Mesopotamian city-states. In Assyria, however, years came to be named for the annual presiding limmu official appointed by the king, rather than for an event. See also[edit]

Ancient Near East
Ancient Near East portal

Cities of the ancient Near East Religions of the ancient Near East History of Mesopotamia Timeline of the Assyrian Empire

Notes[edit]

^ a b c d Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D." Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 121. doi:10.2307/1170959. Retrieved 28 January 2018.  ^ Akkadian: URUAkkad KI; Hittite: KUR A.GA.DÈ.KI "land of Akkad"; Biblical Hebrew אַכַּד Akkad. ^ Sumerian: Agade ^ Mish, Frederick C., Editor in Chief. "Akkad" Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary. ninth ed. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster 1985. ISBN 0-87779-508-8). ^ a b c d Deutscher, Guy (2007). Syntactic Change in Akkadian: The Evolution of Sentential Complementation. Oxford University Press
Oxford University Press US. pp. 20–21. ISBN 978-0-19-953222-3.  ^ a b Woods, C. (2006). "Bilingualism, Scribal Learning, and the Death of Sumerian" (PDF). S.L. Sanders (ed) Margins of Writing, Origins of Culture: 91–120. Chicago.  ^ Zettler (2003), p. 20. "Brinkman's chronology places Sargon's accession at 2334, his successors, Naram-Suen and Sharkalisharri, under whom the dynasty presumably collapsed, at 2254–2218 and 2217–2193, respectively, and the Third Dynasty of Ur
Third Dynasty of Ur at 2112–2004. however, Brinkman noted that if Hallo's 40 year Gutian interregnum is correct then the Dynasty of Akkade would have to be dated 2293–2113. The middle chronology, however, is under attack, with various scholars arguing strongly in favor of a low(er) chronology and for various reasons. Without going into detail, Boese has placed Sargon's accession at shortly after 2250 (1982), Gasche, Armstrong, Cole and Gurzadyan at 2200 (1998) and Reade at 2180 (2001), with the Third Dynasty of Ur moved according." ^ F Leo Oppenhiem - Ancient Mesopotamia ^ Liverani (1993), p. 3. "The factual criticism is that empires existed even before Akkad: or more properly that the term and concept of 'empire' has been recently applied (on not worse grounds than in the case of Akkad) to other older cases, from the Uruk
Uruk of the late- Uruk
Uruk period to the Ebla
Ebla of the royal archives, to the very state formations of the Sumerian south in the period called in fact 'proto-imperial'. In no case is the Akkad empire an absolute novelty [...] 'Akkad the first empire' is therefore subject to criticism not only as for the adjective 'first' but especially as for the noun 'empire'. ^ Genesis 10:10, King James Version (Oxford Standard, 1769) ^ Dalley, Stephanie (1997). The Legacy of Mesopotamia. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 116. ISBN 9780198149460.  ^ a b c Schrakamp, Ingo (2013). " Sargon of Akkad
Sargon of Akkad and his dynasty". In Bagnall, Roger S. The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. Chicago: Blackwell. pp. 6045–6047. doi:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah24182.  ^ a b Wall-Romana, Christophe (1990). "An Areal Location of Agade". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 49 (3): 205–245. doi:10.1086/373442. JSTOR 546244.  ^ Weiss, Harvey (1975), "Kish, Akkad and Agade", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 95 (3): 434–453, doi:10.2307/599355, JSTOR 599355  ^ McMahon, Augusta (2006). The Early Dynastic to Akkadian
Akkadian Transition. The Area WF Sounding at Nippur
Nippur (PDF). Chicago: Oriental Institute. ISBN 1-885923-38-4. Retrieved 19 March 2015.  ^ Buccellati, Giorgio; Kelly-Buccellati, Marilyn (2002). "Tar'am-Agade, Daughter of Naram-Sin, at Urkesh" (PDF). In Al-Gailani Werr, Lamia. Of Pots and Plans. Papers on the Archaeology and History of Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia and Syria
Syria presented to David Oates in Honour of his 75th Birthday. London: Nabu. pp. 11–31. ISBN 1897750625. Retrieved 18 March 2015.  ^ a b c Weiss, H; et al. (1993). "The Genesis and Collapse of Third Millennium North Mesopotamian Civilization". Science. 261 (5124): 995–1004. Bibcode:1993Sci...261..995W. doi:10.1126/science.261.5124.995. PMID 17739617.  ^ Wiener, Malcolm H. (2014). "The Interaction of Climate Change and Agency in the Collapse of Civilizations ca. 2300–2000 BC". Radiocarbon. 56 (4): S1–S16. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.692.2170 . doi:10.2458/azu_rc.56.18325.  ^ J. Oates (2004), pp. 5–8. "Following the destruction of the city sometime in the twenty-third century BC, Nagar was rebuilt by officials of the Akkadian
Akkadian Dynasty as a major centre of their provincial administration, a fact clearly attested in the cuneiform documents from this site." ^ David Oates & Joan Oates, " Akkadian
Akkadian Buildings at Tell Brak"; Iraq
Iraq 59, 1989. ^ Pruß, Alexander (2004), "Remarks on the Chronological Periods", in Lebeau, Marc; Sauvage, Martin, Atlas of Preclassical Upper Mesopotamia, Subartu, 13, pp. 7–21, ISBN 2503991203  ^ van de Mieroop, M. (2007). A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC. Malden: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-22552-8.  ^ Foster, Benjamin R. (2013), "Akkad (Agade)", in Bagnall, Roger S., The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, Chicago: Blackwell, pp. 266–267, doi:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah01005  ^ a b Georges Roux (1996), Ancient Iraq
Iraq (3rd Edition)(Penguin Harmondsworth) ^ Stiebing Jr, H. William (2009). Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture. Pearson Longman; University of New Orleans. p. 69.  ^ Samuel Noah Kramer, The Sumerians, Chicago University Press, 1971, ISBN 0-226-45238-7 ^ Stiebing Jr, H. William (2009). Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture. Pearson Longman; University of New Orleans. p. 70.  ^ Dalley proposes that these sources may have originally referred to Sargon II
Sargon II of the Assyria
Assyria rather than Sargon of Akkad. Stephanie Dalley, "Babylon as a Name for Other Cities Including Nineveh", in [1] Proceedings of the 51st Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale, Oriental Institute SAOC 62, pp. 25–33, 2005 ^ Stiebing Jr, H. William (2009). Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture. Pearson Longman; University of New Orleans. p. 71.  ^ Stiebing Jr, H. William (2009). Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture. Pearson Longman; University of New Orleans. p. 72.  ^ Stele of Narâm-Sîn, king of Akkad, celebrating his victory against the Lullubi
Lullubi from Zagros. Limestone, c. 2250 BCE. Brought from Sippar to Susa
Susa among other spoils of war in the 12th century BCE. Now given dates for Naram-Suen of Akkad, reign 2190 - 2154 BC. ^ a b Stiebing Jr, H.William. Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture. (Pearson Longman; University of New Orleans, 2009), p.74 ^ [2] Piotr Michalowski, "The Mortal Kings of Ur: A Short Century of Divine Rule in Ancient Mesopotamia", Oriental Institute Seminars 4, pp. 33–45, The Oriental Institute, 2008, ISBN 1-885923-55-4 ^ Steve Tinney, "A New Look at Naram-Sin and the Great Rebellion", Journal of Cuneiform
Cuneiform Studies, vol. 47, pp. 1–14, 1995 ^ "Archeological Perspectives on the Localization of Naram-Sin's Armanum", Adelheid Otto, Journal of Cuneiform
Cuneiform Studies, Vol. 58, (2006), pp. 1–26 ^ Benjamin R. Foster, The Siege of Armanum, Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society, vol. 14, pp. 27–36, 1982 ^ Adelheid Otto, "Archaeological Perspectives on the Localization of Naram-Sin's Armanum", Journal of Cuneiform
Cuneiform Studies, vol. 58, pp. 1–26, 2006 ^ Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography.  ^ Cyrus Herzl Gordon; Gary Rendsburg; Nathan H. Winter. Eblaitica: Essays on the Ebla
Ebla Archives and Eblaite Language, Volume 4. p. 63,64,65,66.  ^ William J. Burroughs, Climate Change in Prehistory: The end of the age of chaos, Cambridge University Press, 2008, ISBN 0-521-07010-4 ^ Fagan, Brian (2004) The Long Summer: how climate changed civilisation (Granta Books)[page needed] ^ a b De Mieroop, Marc Van. (2005). A History of the Ancient Near East ca. 3000-323BCE, Malden: Blackwell Publishing. ^  Prince, John Dyneley (1911). "Akkad". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 457.  ^ a b Zettler (2003), pp. 24–25. "Moreover, the Dynasty of Akkade's fall did not lead to social collapse, but the re-emergence of the normative political organization. The southern cities reasserted their independence, and if we know little about the period between the death of Sharkalisharri and the accession of Urnamma, it may be due more to accidents of discovery than because of widespread 'collapse.' The extensive French excavations at Tello produced relevant remains dating right through the period." ^ "Cylinder Seal with King or God and Vanquished Lion". The Walters Art Museum.  ^ Norman Yoffee, "The Collapse of Ancient Mesopotamian States and Civilization", In The Collapse of Ancient States and Civilizations, ed. Norman Yoffee and George L. Cowgill, University of Arizona Press, 1991. Cited in Zettler (2003), p. 22: "Yoffee [...] argued that unification of the formerly independent city-states of the southern floodplain created an inherently unstable polity, generating an 'uneasy' power sharing between local elites and royal appointees particularly apparent in the redistribution of provincial lands to royal officials and the requisitioning of labor and resources. [...] Yoffee cited certain external factors as contributing to the collapse of the Dynasty of Akkade as well. he suggested that the Dynasty was 'overextended,' and resurrected Speiser's argument that the projection of Akkadian
Akkadian military power in distant regions 'galvanized' local populations such as the Guti, inducing them to form alliances and conduct 'guerrilla' operations against the Akkadians." ^ Richard A. Kerr (1998). "Sea-Floor Dust Shows Drought
Drought Felled Akkadian
Akkadian Empire". Science. 279 (5349): 325–326. Bibcode:1998Sci...279..325K. doi:10.1126/science.279.5349.325.  ^ "Unreported Heritage News".  ^ deMenocal P.B., (2000), "North Atlantic influence on Tigris– Euphrates
Euphrates streamflow" (International Journal of Climatology, Volume 20, Issue 8, pages 853–863, 30 June 2000) ^ Christie, Peter (2008) The Curse of Akkad: Climate Upheavals that Rocked Human History, Annick Press, pp. 31-48 ^ Cultural Responses to Climate Change During the Late Holocene, Peter B. deMenocal, Science, 27 April 2001, Vol. 292 no. 5517 pp. 667–673 doi:10.1126/science.1059287 ^ "Climate change and the collapse of the Akkadian
Akkadian empire: Evidence from the deep sea"; Geology 28(4), April 2000. ^ Zettler (2003), pp. 18–21. ^ J. Oates (2004), p. 11–13. "A French soil-micomorphologist, Marie-Agnés Courty, a leading figure in assessing the evidence for this 'event', has now identified at Brak the earliest clearly dated Near Eastern soil 'signal' in a level unquestionably preceding the construction of Naram-Sin's Palace, that is, well before the collapse of the Akkadian
Akkadian Empire
Empire (see Courty 2001 and associated bibliography)." ^ Leick, Gwendolyn (2001) "Mesopotamia: Invention of the City" (Penguin Books) ^ [3] Tar'am-Agade, Daughter of Naram-Sin, at Urkesh, Buccellati, Giorgio and Marilyn Kelly-Buccellati, in Of Pots and Plans. Papers on the Archaeology and History of Mesopotamia
History of Mesopotamia and Syria
Syria presented to David Oates in Honour of his 75th Birthday, London: Nabu Publications, 2002 ^ J. Oates (2004), p. 10. ^ Thompson, William J. (2003), "Complexity, Diminishing Marginal Returns and Serial Mesopotamian Fragmentation," Journal of World Systems Research ^ Leick Gwendolyn (2003), "Mesopotamia: The invention of the city" (Penguin) ^ Kramer 1963:324, quoted in Charles Keith Maisels, The Emergence of Civilization ch. "The institutions of urbanism", 1990:179. ^ Bourke, Stephen (2008). The Middle East: the cradle of civilization revealed. Thames & Hudson. p. 89. ISBN 9780500251478.  ^ Frankfort, Henri, The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient, Pelican History of Art, 4th ed 1970, Penguin (now Yale History of Art), ISBN 0140561072, pp. 83–91 ^ Frankfort, p. 91 ^ "Sumerian language". Encyclopædia Britannica.  ^ Winter, Irene J. (1987), "Women in Public: The Disk of Enheduanna, The Beginning of the Office of En-Priestess, the Weight of the Visual Evidence." La Femme dans le Proche-Orient Antique. (Paris: Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations) ^ Enheduanna, The Exaltation of Inanna. Translated by William W. Hallo and J.J.A. Van Dijk, Ams Pr Inc, 1979, ISBN 0-404-60263-0 ^ Binkley, Roberta, The Importance of Enheduanna ^ "The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature".  ^ Marshall, Michael (2012), "Ruined, Climate may have had a far more profound impact on past societies than we realised" (New Scientist 4 August 2012 Vol 215 No. 2876) ^ Jerrold S. Cooper, "Paradigm and Propaganda: The Dynasty of Akkade in the 21st Century"; in Liverani (1993). ^ Bill T. Arnold, "The Weidner Chronicle and the Idea of History in Israel
Israel and Mesopotamia; in Faith, Tradition, and History: Old Testament Historiography
Historiography in Its Near Eastern Context; Millard, Hoffmeier & Baker, eds.; Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1994; ISBN 0-931464-82-X ; p. 138. ^ van de Mieroop, M. (2007). A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000-323 BC. Malden: Blackwell. pp. 68–69. ISBN 0-631-22552-8. 

Bibliography[edit]

Liverani, Mario, ed. (1993). Akkad: The First World Empire: Structure, Ideology Traditions". Padova: Sargon srl. ISBN 978-8-81120-468-8 Oates, Joan (2004). "Archaeology in Mesopotamia: Digging Deeper at Tell Brak". 2004 Albert Reckitt Archaeological Lecture. In Proceedings of the British Academy: 2004 Lectures; Oxford University Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0-19726-351-8. Sallaberger, Walther; Westenholz, Aage (1999), Mesopotamien. Akkade-Zeit und Ur III-Zeit, Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, 160/3, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, ISBN 3-525-53325-X  Zettler, Richard (2003). "Reconstructing the World of Ancient Mesopotamia: Divided Beginnings and Holistic History". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 46(1).

External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Akkadian
Akkadian Empire.

Iraq's Ancient Past — Penn Museum Year Names of Narim-Sin – CDLI Year Named of Shar-kali-Sharri – CDLI Site on Enheduanna
Enheduanna at Virginia Tech University

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Akkadian Empire Amurru Bashan Canaan Ebla Edom Hittite Empire Mari Mitanni Moab Nagar Qatna Tyre Ugarit Urkesh Yamhad

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Ammon Aramea Aram-Damascus Assyrian Empire Canaan Egyptian Empire Israel
Israel (Samaria) Israel
Israel and Judah Judah Neo-Babylonian Empire Philistia Phoenicia Syro-Hittite

Classical Age

Byzantine Empire Hasmonea Herodian Judaea Herodian Tetrarchy Macedonian Empire Nabataea Neo-Babylonian Empire Parthian Empire Palmyrene Empire Persian Empire Roman Empire Roman Republic Sasanian Empire Seleucid Empire

v t e

Ancient Syria
Syria and Mesopotamia

Syria Northern Mesopotamia Southern Mesopotamia

c. 3500–2350 BCE Martu Subartu Sumerian city-states

c. 2350–2200 BCE Akkadian
Akkadian Empire

c. 2200–2100 BCE Gutians

c. 2100–2000 BCE Third Dynasty of Ur
Third Dynasty of Ur (Sumerian Renaissance)

c. 2000–1800 BCE Mari and other Amorite
Amorite city-states Old Assyrian Empire
Old Assyrian Empire (Northern Akkadians) Isin/ Larsa
Larsa and other Amorite
Amorite city-states

c. 1800–1600 BCE Old Hittite Kingdom Old Babylonian Empire
Old Babylonian Empire (Southern Akkadians)

c. 1600–1400 BCE Mitanni
Mitanni (Hurrians) Karduniaš
Karduniaš (Kassites)

c. 1400–1200 BCE New Hittite Kingdom

Middle Assyrian Empire

c. 1200–1150 BCE Bronze Age
Bronze Age collapse ("Sea Peoples") Arameans

c. 1150–911 BCE Phoenicia Syro-Hittite
Syro-Hittite states Aram- Damascus Arameans Middle Babylonia
Babylonia ( Isin
Isin II) Chal de- ans

911–729 BCE Neo-Assyrian Empire

729–609 BCE

626–539 BCE Neo-Babylonian Empire
Neo-Babylonian Empire (Chaldeans)

539–331 BCE Achaemenid Empire
Achaemenid Empire (Persians)

336–301 BCE Macedonian Empire
Macedonian Empire (Ancient Greeks)

311–129 BCE Seleucid Empire

129–63 BCE Seleucid Empire Parthian Empire
Parthian Empire (Iranians)

63 BCE – 243 CE Roman Empire/ Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Empire (Syria)

243–636 CE Sasanian Empire
Sasanian Empire (Persians)

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Ancient Mesopotamia

Geography

Modern

Euphrates Upper Mesopotamia Mesopotamian Marshes Persian Gulf Syrian Desert Taurus Mountains Tigris Zagros
Zagros Mountains

Ancient

Akkad Assyria Babylonia Chaldea Elam Hittites Media Mitanni Sumer Urartu Cities

History

Pre- / Protohistory

Acheulean Mousterian Trialetian Zarzian Natufian Nemrikian Khiamian Pre-Pottery Neolithic A
Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) Pre-Pottery Neolithic B
Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) Hassuna/Samarra Halaf Ubaid Uruk Jemdet Nasr Kish civilization

History

Early Dynastic Akkadian Ur III Old Babylonian Kassite Neo-Assyrian Neo-Babylonian Achaemenid Seleucid Parthian Roman Sasanian Muslim conquest Timeline of the Assyrian Empire

Languages

Akkadian Amorite Aramaic Eblaite Elamite Gutian Hittite Hurrian Luwian Middle Persian Old Persian Parthian Proto-Armenian Sumerian Urartian

Culture / Society

Architecture Art Cuneiform
Cuneiform script Akkadian
Akkadian literature Sumerian literature Music Religion

Archaeology

Looting Destruction by ISIL Tell

Portal

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Iraq articles

History

Ancient

Sumer Akkadian
Akkadian Empire Babylonia Assyria Neo-Assyrian Empire Neo-Babylonian Empire Achaemenid Assyria Seleucid Babylonia Parthian Babylonia Sassanid Asorestan

638–1958

Muslim conquest of Persia Abbasid Caliphate Buyid dynasty Kara Koyunlu Ak Koyunlu Safavids Ottoman Iraq (Mamluk dynasty) Mandatory Iraq Kingdom of Iraq Arab Federation

Republic

1958–68 1968–2003 2003–11 2011–present

Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq
Iraq Region (National Command) Saddam Hussein Iran– Iraq
Iraq War Invasion of Kuwait Gulf War Sanctions Iraq
Iraq War

U.S. invasion Iraqi insurgency U.S. troop withdrawal

Insurgency (2011–2013) Civil War (2014–present)

Mosul liberation

Geography

Al-Faw Peninsula Al-Jazira Euphrates Hamrin Mountains Persian Gulf Islands Mesopotamia Mesopotamian Marshes Places Lakes Shatt al-Arab Syrian Desert Tigris Umm Qasr Zagros
Zagros Mountains

Politics

Administrative divisions Constitution Council of Representatives (legislative) Elections Foreign aid Foreign relations Government

Council of Ministers Presidency Council President Prime Minister

Human rights

in pre-Saddam Iraq in Saddam Hussein's Iraq in post-invasion Iraq

in ISIL-controlled territory

LGBT Freedom of religion Women

Law Military Police Political parties Judiciary Wars and conflicts

Economy

Central Bank Dinar (currency) Infrastructure Oil Industry Oil reserves Reconstruction Stock Exchange Telecommunications Transportation

Society

Cuisine Culture Education Health Media Music Smoking Sports

Demographics

Iraqis

diaspora refugees

Languages

Arabic Aramaic Kurdish Persian Iraqi Turkmen
Iraqi Turkmen dialect

Minorities

Armenians Assyrians Circassians Kurds Mandaeans Marsh Arabs Persians Solluba Turkmen/Turcoman Jews

Religion

Islam Christianity Mandaeism Yazidis

Outline Index

Category Portal

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Empires

Ancient

Akkadian Egyptian Assyrian Babylonian Carthaginian Chinese

Qin Han Jin Northern Wei Tang

Hellenistic

Macedonian Seleucid

Hittite Indian

Nanda Maurya Satavahana Shunga Gupta Harsha

Iranian

Elamite Median Achaemenid Parthian Sasanian

Kushan Mongol

Xianbei Xiongnu

Roman

Western Eastern

Teotihuacan

Post-classical

Arab

Rashidun Umayyad Abbasid Fatimid Córdoba

Aragonese Angevin Aztec Benin Bornu Bruneian Bulgarian

First Second

Byzantine

Nicaea Trebizond

Carolingian Chinese

Sui Tang Song Yuan

Ethiopian

Zagwe Solomonic

Georgian Hunnic Inca Indian

Chola Gurjara-Pratihara Pala Eastern Ganga dynasty Delhi Vijayanagara

Iranian

Samanid

Kanem Khmer Latin Majapahit Malaccan Mali Mongol

Yuan Golden Horde Chagatai Khanate Ilkhanate

Moroccan

Idrisid Almoravid Almohad Marinid

North Sea Oyo Roman Serbian Somali

Ajuran Ifatite Adalite Mogadishan Warsangali

Songhai Srivijaya Tibetan Turko-Persian

Ghaznavid Great Seljuk Khwarezmian Timurid

Vietnamese

Ly Tran Le

Wagadou

Modern

Ashanti Austrian Austro-Hungarian Brazilian Central African Chinese

Ming Qing China Manchukuo

Ethiopian French

First Second

German

First/Old Reich Second Reich Third Reich

Haitian

First Second

Indian

Maratha Sikh Mughal British Raj

Iranian

Safavid Afsharid

Japanese Johor Korean Mexican

First Second

Moroccan

Saadi Alaouite

Russian USSR Somali

Gobroon Majeerteen Hobyo Dervish

Swedish Tongan Turkish

Ottoman Karaman Ramazan

Vietnamese

Tay Son Nguyen Vietnam

Colonial

American Belgian British

English

Danish Dutch French German Italian Japanese Omani Norwegian Portuguese Spanish Swedish

Lists

Empires

largest

ancient great powers medieval great powers modern