The ultimate fate of the universe is a topic in
physical cosmology, whose theoretical restrictions allow possible scenarios for the
evolution
Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. These characteristics are the expressions of genes, which are passed on from parent to offspring during reproduction. Variation ...
and ultimate fate of the
universe
The universe is all of space and time and their contents, including planets, stars, galaxies, and all other forms of matter and energy. The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological description of the development of the univers ...
to be described and evaluated. Based on available observational evidence, deciding the fate and evolution of the universe has become a valid cosmological question, being beyond the mostly
untestable constraints of
mythological or theological beliefs. Several possible futures have been predicted by different scientific hypotheses, including that the universe might have existed for a finite and
infinite duration, or towards explaining the manner and circumstances of its beginning.
Observations made by
Edwin Hubble during the 1930s–1950s found that galaxies appeared to be moving away from each other, leading to the currently accepted
Big Bang theory. This suggests that the universe began very dense about
13.787 billion years ago, and it has
expanded and (on average) become less
dense ever since. Confirmation of the Big Bang mostly depends on knowing the rate of expansion, average density of matter, and the physical properties of the
mass–energy in the universe.
There is a strong consensus among
cosmologists that the
shape of the universe is considered "flat" (
parallel lines stay parallel) and will continue to expand forever.
Factors that need to be considered in determining the universe's origin and ultimate fate include the average motions of galaxies, the shape and structure of the universe, and the amount of
dark matter
Dark matter is a hypothetical form of matter thought to account for approximately 85% of the matter in the universe. Dark matter is called "dark" because it does not appear to interact with the electromagnetic field, which means it does not ...
and
dark energy
In physical cosmology and astronomy, dark energy is an unknown form of energy that affects the universe on the largest scales. The first observational evidence for its existence came from measurements of supernovas, which showed that the univ ...
that the universe contains.
Emerging scientific basis
Theory
The theoretical scientific exploration of the ultimate fate of the universe became possible with
Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein ( ; ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist, widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest and most influential physicists of all time. Einstein is best known for developing the theor ...
's 1915 theory of
general relativity
General relativity, also known as the general theory of relativity and Einstein's theory of gravity, is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915 and is the current description of gravitation in modern physics ...
. General relativity can be employed to describe the universe on the largest possible scale. There are several possible solutions to the equations of general relativity, and each solution implies a possible ultimate fate of the universe.
Alexander Friedmann
Alexander Alexandrovich Friedmann (also spelled Friedman or Fridman ; russian: Алекса́ндр Алекса́ндрович Фри́дман) (June 16 .S. 4 1888 – September 16, 1925) was a Russian and Soviet physicist and mathematicia ...
proposed several
solution
Solution may refer to:
* Solution (chemistry), a mixture where one substance is dissolved in another
* Solution (equation), in mathematics
** Numerical solution, in numerical analysis, approximate solutions within specified error bounds
* Solutio ...
s in 1922, as did
Georges Lemaître in 1927.
[ ''translated by A. S. Eddington'': ] In some of these solutions, the universe has been
expanding from an initial
singularity which was, essentially, the Big Bang.
Observation
In 1929,
Edwin Hubble published his conclusion, based on his observations of
Cepheid variable stars in distant galaxies, that the universe was expanding. From then on, the ''beginning'' of the universe and its possible ''end'' have been the subjects of serious scientific investigation.
Big Bang and Steady State theories
In 1927,
Georges Lemaître set out a theory that has since come to be called the Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe.
In 1948,
Fred Hoyle set out his opposing
Steady State theory in which the universe continually expanded but remained statistically unchanged as new matter is constantly created. These two theories were active contenders until the 1965 discovery, by
Arno Penzias and
Robert Wilson, of the
cosmic microwave background
In Big Bang cosmology the cosmic microwave background (CMB, CMBR) is electromagnetic radiation that is a remnant from an early stage of the universe, also known as "relic radiation". The CMB is faint cosmic background radiation filling all spac ...
radiation, a fact that is a straightforward prediction of the Big Bang theory, and one that the original Steady State theory could not account for. As a result, the Big Bang theory quickly became the most widely held view of the origin of the universe.
Cosmological constant
Einstein and his contemporaries believed in a
static universe. When Einstein found that his
general relativity
General relativity, also known as the general theory of relativity and Einstein's theory of gravity, is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915 and is the current description of gravitation in modern physics ...
equations could easily be solved in such a way as to allow the universe to be expanding at the present and contracting in the far future, he added to those equations what he called a
cosmological constant — essentially a constant energy density, unaffected by any expansion or contraction — whose role was to offset the effect of gravity on the universe as a whole in such a way that the universe would remain static. However, after Hubble announced his conclusion that the universe was expanding, Einstein would write that his cosmological constant was "the greatest blunder of my life."
Density parameter
An important parameter in fate of the universe theory is the
density parameter
The Friedmann equations are a set of equations in physical cosmology that govern the expansion of space in homogeneous and isotropic models of the universe within the context of general relativity. They were first derived by Alexander Friedmann ...
, omega (
), defined as the average matter density of the universe divided by a critical value of that density. This selects one of three possible
geometries
This is a list of geometry topics.
Types, methodologies, and terminologies of geometry.
* Absolute geometry
* Affine geometry
* Algebraic geometry
* Analytic geometry
* Archimedes' use of infinitesimals
* Birational geometry
* Complex geometr ...
depending on whether
is equal to, less than, or greater than
. These are called, respectively, the flat, open and closed universes. These three adjectives refer to the overall
geometry of the universe, and not to the local curving of
spacetime
In physics, spacetime is a mathematical model that combines the three dimensions of space and one dimension of time into a single four-dimensional manifold. Spacetime diagrams can be used to visualize relativistic effects, such as why differ ...
caused by smaller clumps of mass (for example,
galaxies and
star
A star is an astronomical object comprising a luminous spheroid of plasma (physics), plasma held together by its gravity. The List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs, nearest star to Earth is the Sun. Many other stars are visible to the naked ...
s). If the primary content of the universe is inert matter, as in the
dust models popular for much of the 20th century, there is a particular fate corresponding to each geometry. Hence cosmologists aimed to determine the fate of the universe by measuring
, or equivalently the rate at which the expansion was decelerating.
Repulsive force
Starting in 1998, observations of
supernova
A supernova is a powerful and luminous explosion of a star. It has the plural form supernovae or supernovas, and is abbreviated SN or SNe. This transient astronomical event occurs during the last evolutionary stages of a massive star or whe ...
s in distant
galaxies have been interpreted as consistent with a universe whose
expansion is accelerating. Subsequent cosmological theorizing has been designed so as to allow for this possible acceleration, nearly always by invoking
dark energy
In physical cosmology and astronomy, dark energy is an unknown form of energy that affects the universe on the largest scales. The first observational evidence for its existence came from measurements of supernovas, which showed that the univ ...
, which in its simplest form is just a positive cosmological constant. In general, dark energy is a catch-all term for any hypothesized field with negative pressure, usually with a density that changes as the universe expands.
Role of the shape of the universe
The current scientific consensus of most cosmologists is that the ultimate fate of the universe depends on its overall shape, how much
dark energy
In physical cosmology and astronomy, dark energy is an unknown form of energy that affects the universe on the largest scales. The first observational evidence for its existence came from measurements of supernovas, which showed that the univ ...
it contains and on the
equation of state
In physics, chemistry, and thermodynamics, an equation of state is a thermodynamic equation relating state variables, which describe the state of matter under a given set of physical conditions, such as pressure, volume, temperature, or intern ...
which determines how the dark energy density responds to the expansion of the universe.
Recent observations conclude, from
7.5 billion years after the Big Bang, that the expansion rate of the universe has probably been increasing, commensurate with the Open Universe theory. However, other recent measurements by
Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe suggest that the universe is either flat or very close to flat.
Closed universe
If
, the geometry of space is closed like the surface of a sphere. The sum of the angles of a triangle exceeds 180 degrees and there are no parallel lines; all lines eventually meet. The geometry of the universe is, at least on a very large scale,
elliptic.
In a closed universe, gravity eventually stops the expansion of the universe, after which it starts to contract until all matter in the universe collapses to a point, a final singularity termed the "
Big Crunch
The Big Crunch is a hypothetical scenario for the ultimate fate of the universe, in which the expansion of the universe eventually reverses and the universe recollapses, ultimately causing the cosmic scale factor to reach zero, an event potentia ...
", the opposite of the
Big Bang. Some new modern theories assume the universe may have a significant amount of dark energy, whose repulsive force may be sufficient to cause the expansion of the universe to continue forever—even if
.
Open universe
If
, the geometry of space is
open
Open or OPEN may refer to:
Music
* Open (band), Australian pop/rock band
* The Open (band), English indie rock band
* Open (Blues Image album), ''Open'' (Blues Image album), 1969
* Open (Gotthard album), ''Open'' (Gotthard album), 1999
* Open (C ...
, i.e., negatively curved like the surface of a saddle. The angles of a triangle sum to less than 180 degrees, and lines that do not meet are never equidistant; they have a point of least distance and otherwise grow apart. The geometry of such a universe is
hyperbolic.
Even without dark energy, a negatively curved universe expands forever, with gravity negligibly slowing the rate of expansion. With dark energy, the expansion not only continues but accelerates. The ultimate fate of an open universe is either universal
heat death
Heat death may refer to:
*Heat death of the universe, a proposed cosmological event
** Heat death paradox, a philosophical examination of the cosmological event
*Hyperthermia, injury up to and including death, from excessive heat
*Thermal shock, ...
, a "
Big Freeze" (not to be confused with
heat death
Heat death may refer to:
*Heat death of the universe, a proposed cosmological event
** Heat death paradox, a philosophical examination of the cosmological event
*Hyperthermia, injury up to and including death, from excessive heat
*Thermal shock, ...
, despite seemingly similar name interpretation ; see
''§Theories about the end of the universe'' below), or a "
Big Rip" — in particular
dark energy
In physical cosmology and astronomy, dark energy is an unknown form of energy that affects the universe on the largest scales. The first observational evidence for its existence came from measurements of supernovas, which showed that the univ ...
,
quintessence
Quintessence, or fifth essence, may refer to:
Cosmology
* Aether (classical element), in medieval cosmology and science, the fifth element that fills the universe beyond the terrestrial sphere
* Quintessence (physics), a hypothetical form of da ...
, and the
Big Rip scenario — where the acceleration caused by dark energy eventually becomes so strong that it completely overwhelms the effects of the
gravitational
In physics, gravity () is a fundamental interaction which causes mutual attraction between all things with mass or energy. Gravity is, by far, the weakest of the four fundamental interactions, approximately 1038 times weaker than the str ...
,
electromagnetic and
strong
Strong may refer to:
Education
* The Strong, an educational institution in Rochester, New York, United States
* Strong Hall (Lawrence, Kansas), an administrative hall of the University of Kansas
* Strong School, New Haven, Connecticut, United S ...
binding forces.
Conversely, a ''negative''
cosmological constant, which would correspond to a negative energy density and positive pressure, would cause even an open universe to re-collapse to a big crunch.
Flat universe
If the average density of the universe exactly equals the critical density so that
, then the geometry of the universe is flat: as in
Euclidean geometry, the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180 degrees and parallel lines continuously maintain the same distance. Measurements from the
Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe have confirmed the universe is flat within a 0.4% margin of error.
In the absence of dark energy, a flat universe expands forever but at a continually decelerating rate, with expansion asymptotically approaching zero. With dark energy, the expansion rate of the universe initially slows down, due to the effects of gravity, but eventually increases, and the ultimate fate of the universe becomes the same as that of an open universe.
Theories about the end of the universe
The fate of the universe may be determined by its density. The preponderance of evidence to date, based on measurements of the rate of expansion and the mass density, favors a universe that will continue to expand indefinitely, resulting in the "Big Freeze" scenario below. However, observations are not conclusive, and alternative models are still possible.
Big Freeze or Heat Death
The
Big Freeze (or Big Chill) is a scenario under which continued expansion results in a universe that
asymptotically
In analytic geometry, an asymptote () of a curve is a line such that the distance between the curve and the line approaches zero as one or both of the ''x'' or ''y'' coordinates tends to infinity. In projective geometry and related contexts, ...
approaches
absolute zero temperature. This scenario, in combination with the Big Rip scenario, is gaining ground as the most important hypothesis.
It could, in the absence of dark energy, occur only under a flat or hyperbolic geometry. With a positive cosmological constant, it could also occur in a closed universe. In this scenario,
star
A star is an astronomical object comprising a luminous spheroid of plasma (physics), plasma held together by its gravity. The List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs, nearest star to Earth is the Sun. Many other stars are visible to the naked ...
s are expected to form normally for 10
12 to 10
14 (1–100 trillion) years, but eventually the supply of gas needed for
will be exhausted. As existing stars run out of fuel and cease to shine, the universe will slowly and inexorably grow darker. Eventually
black holes will dominate the universe, which themselves will disappear over time as they emit
Hawking radiation.
Over infinite time, there would be a spontaneous
entropy
Entropy is a scientific concept, as well as a measurable physical property, that is most commonly associated with a state of disorder, randomness, or uncertainty. The term and the concept are used in diverse fields, from classical thermodyna ...
decrease by the
Poincaré recurrence theorem
In mathematics and physics, the Poincaré recurrence theorem states that certain dynamical systems will, after a sufficiently long but finite time, return to a state arbitrarily close to (for continuous state systems), or exactly the same as (fo ...
,
thermal fluctuations, and the
fluctuation theorem.
A related scenario is
heat death
Heat death may refer to:
*Heat death of the universe, a proposed cosmological event
** Heat death paradox, a philosophical examination of the cosmological event
*Hyperthermia, injury up to and including death, from excessive heat
*Thermal shock, ...
, which states that the universe goes to a state of maximum
entropy
Entropy is a scientific concept, as well as a measurable physical property, that is most commonly associated with a state of disorder, randomness, or uncertainty. The term and the concept are used in diverse fields, from classical thermodyna ...
in which everything is evenly distributed and there are no
gradient
In vector calculus, the gradient of a scalar-valued differentiable function of several variables is the vector field (or vector-valued function) \nabla f whose value at a point p is the "direction and rate of fastest increase". If the gr ...
s—which are needed to sustain
information processing
Information processing is the change (processing) of information in any manner detectable by an observer. As such, it is a process that ''describes'' everything that happens (changes) in the universe, from the falling of a rock (a change in posi ...
, one form of which is
life
Life is a quality that distinguishes matter that has biological processes, such as signaling and self-sustaining processes, from that which does not, and is defined by the capacity for growth, reaction to stimuli, metabolism, energy ...
. The heat death scenario is compatible with any of the three spatial models, but requires that the universe reaches an eventual temperature minimum.
Big Rip
The current
Hubble constant
Hubble's law, also known as the Hubble–Lemaître law, is the observation in physical cosmology that galaxies are moving away from Earth at speeds proportional to their distance. In other words, the farther they are, the faster they are moving ...
defines a rate of acceleration of the universe not large enough to destroy local structures like galaxies, which are held together by gravity, but large enough to increase the space between them. A steady increase in the Hubble constant to infinity would result in all material objects in the universe, starting with galaxies and eventually (in a finite time) all forms, no matter how small, disintegrating into unbound
elementary particles, radiation and beyond. As the energy density, scale factor and expansion rate become infinite the universe ends as what is effectively a singularity.
In the special case of
phantom dark energy, which has supposed negative kinetic energy that would result in a higher rate of acceleration than other cosmological constants predict, a more sudden big rip could occur.
Big Crunch
The
Big Crunch
The Big Crunch is a hypothetical scenario for the ultimate fate of the universe, in which the expansion of the universe eventually reverses and the universe recollapses, ultimately causing the cosmic scale factor to reach zero, an event potentia ...
hypothesis is a symmetric view of the ultimate fate of the universe. Just as the Big Bang started as a cosmological expansion, this theory assumes that the average density of the universe will be enough to stop its expansion and the universe will begin contracting. The result is unknown; a simple estimation would have all the matter and space-time in the universe collapse into a dimensionless
singularity back into how the universe started with the Big Bang, but at these scales unknown quantum effects need to be considered (see
Quantum gravity). Recent evidence suggests that this scenario is unlikely but has not been ruled out, as measurements have been available only over a short period of time, relatively speaking, and could reverse in the future.
This scenario allows the Big Bang to occur immediately after the Big Crunch of a preceding universe. If this happens repeatedly, it creates a
cyclic model, which is also known as an oscillatory universe. The universe could then consist of an infinite sequence of finite universes, with each finite universe ending with a Big Crunch that is also the Big Bang of the next universe. A problem with the cyclic universe is that it does not reconcile with the
second law of thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics is a physical law based on universal experience concerning heat and energy interconversions. One simple statement of the law is that heat always moves from hotter objects to colder objects (or "downhill"), unle ...
, as entropy would build up from oscillation to oscillation and cause the eventual
heat death
Heat death may refer to:
*Heat death of the universe, a proposed cosmological event
** Heat death paradox, a philosophical examination of the cosmological event
*Hyperthermia, injury up to and including death, from excessive heat
*Thermal shock, ...
of the universe . Current evidence also indicates the universe is not
closed
Closed may refer to:
Mathematics
* Closure (mathematics), a set, along with operations, for which applying those operations on members always results in a member of the set
* Closed set, a set which contains all its limit points
* Closed interval, ...
. This has caused cosmologists to abandon the oscillating universe model. A somewhat similar idea is embraced by the
cyclic model, but this idea evades
heat death
Heat death may refer to:
*Heat death of the universe, a proposed cosmological event
** Heat death paradox, a philosophical examination of the cosmological event
*Hyperthermia, injury up to and including death, from excessive heat
*Thermal shock, ...
because of an expansion of the
branes that dilutes entropy accumulated in the previous cycle.
Big Bounce
The
Big Bounce
The Big Bounce is a hypothesized cosmological model for the origin of the known universe. It was originally suggested as a phase of the ''cyclic model'' or ''oscillatory universe'' interpretation of the Big Bang, where the first cosmological even ...
is a theorized scientific model related to the beginning of the known universe. It derives from the oscillatory universe or cyclic repetition interpretation of the Big Bang where the first cosmological event was the result of the collapse of a previous universe.
According to one version of the Big Bang theory of cosmology, in the beginning the universe was infinitely dense. Such a description seems to be at odds with other more widely accepted theories, especially quantum mechanics and its
uncertainty principle.
Therefore, quantum mechanics has given rise to an alternative version of the Big Bang theory, specifically that the universe
tunneled into existence and had a finite density consistent with quantum mechanics, before evolving in a manner governed by classical physics.
[ Also, if the universe is closed, this theory would predict that once this universe collapses it will spawn another universe in an event similar to the Big Bang after a universal singularity is reached or a repulsive quantum force causes re-expansion.
In simple terms, this theory states that the universe will continuously repeat the cycle of a Big Bang, followed up with a Big Crunch.
]
Cosmic uncertainty
Each possibility described so far is based on a very simple form for the dark energy equation of state. However, as the name is meant to imply, very little is currently known about the physics of dark energy
In physical cosmology and astronomy, dark energy is an unknown form of energy that affects the universe on the largest scales. The first observational evidence for its existence came from measurements of supernovas, which showed that the univ ...
. If the theory of inflation
In economics, inflation is an increase in the general price level of goods and services in an economy. When the general price level rises, each unit of currency buys fewer goods and services; consequently, inflation corresponds to a reduct ...
is true, the universe went through an episode dominated by a different form of dark energy in the first moments of the Big Bang, but inflation ended, indicating an equation of state far more complex than those assumed so far for present-day dark energy. It is possible that the dark energy equation of state could change again, resulting in an event that would have consequences which are extremely difficult to predict or parameterize. As the nature of dark energy and dark matter remain enigmatic, even hypothetical, the possibilities surrounding their coming role in the universe are currently unknown. None of these theoretic endings for the universe are certain. In other words, considering the universe is only around 14 billion years old, extrapolating the trends observed in the cosmic history so far to a considerably longer timescale can be criticized as being insufficiently substantiated.
Other possible fates to the universe
There are also some possible events, such as the Big Slurp, which would seriously harm the universe, although the universe as a whole would not be completely destroyed as a result.
Big Slurp
This theory posits that the universe currently exists in a false vacuum and that it could become a true vacuum at any moment.
In order to best understand the false vacuum collapse theory, one must first understand the Higgs field
The Higgs boson, sometimes called the Higgs particle, is an elementary particle in the Standard Model of particle physics produced by the quantum excitation of the Higgs field,
one of the fields in particle physics theory. In the St ...
which permeates the universe. Much like an electromagnetic field
An electromagnetic field (also EM field or EMF) is a classical (i.e. non-quantum) field produced by (stationary or moving) electric charges. It is the field described by classical electrodynamics (a classical field theory) and is the classical ...
, it varies in strength based upon its potential. A true vacuum exists so long as the universe exists in its lowest energy state, in which case the false vacuum theory is irrelevant. However, if the vacuum is not in its lowest energy state (a false vacuum), it could tunnel into a lower-energy state.[
*
*
*
*
*
* ] This is called ''vacuum decay
In quantum field theory, a false vacuum is a hypothetical vacuum that is relatively stable, but not in the most stable state possible. This condition is known as metastable. It may last for a very long time in that state, but could eventually d ...
''. This has the potential to fundamentally alter our universe; in more audacious scenarios even the various physical constant
A physical constant, sometimes fundamental physical constant or universal constant, is a physical quantity that is generally believed to be both universal in nature and have constant value in time. It is contrasted with a mathematical constant ...
s could have different values, severely affecting the foundations of matter
In classical physics and general chemistry, matter is any substance that has mass and takes up space by having volume. All everyday objects that can be touched are ultimately composed of atoms, which are made up of interacting subatomic part ...
, energy
In physics, energy (from Ancient Greek: ἐνέργεια, ''enérgeia'', “activity”) is the quantitative property that is transferred to a body or to a physical system, recognizable in the performance of work and in the form of ...
, and spacetime
In physics, spacetime is a mathematical model that combines the three dimensions of space and one dimension of time into a single four-dimensional manifold. Spacetime diagrams can be used to visualize relativistic effects, such as why differ ...
. It is also possible that all structures will be destroyed instantaneously, without any forewarning.
However, only a portion of the universe would be destroyed by the Big Slurp while most of the universe would still be unaffected because galaxies located further than 4,200 megaparsecs (13 billion light-years) away from each other are moving away from each other faster than the speed of light
The speed of light in vacuum, commonly denoted , is a universal physical constant that is important in many areas of physics. The speed of light is exactly equal to ). According to the special theory of relativity, is the upper limit fo ...
while the Big Slurp itself cannot expand faster than the speed of light.How are galaxies moving away faster than light?
/ref>
Observational constraints on theories
Choosing among these rival scenarios is done by 'weighing' the universe, for example, measuring the relative contributions of matter
In classical physics and general chemistry, matter is any substance that has mass and takes up space by having volume. All everyday objects that can be touched are ultimately composed of atoms, which are made up of interacting subatomic part ...
, radiation
In physics, radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through space or through a material medium. This includes:
* ''electromagnetic radiation'', such as radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visi ...
, dark matter
Dark matter is a hypothetical form of matter thought to account for approximately 85% of the matter in the universe. Dark matter is called "dark" because it does not appear to interact with the electromagnetic field, which means it does not ...
, and dark energy
In physical cosmology and astronomy, dark energy is an unknown form of energy that affects the universe on the largest scales. The first observational evidence for its existence came from measurements of supernovas, which showed that the univ ...
to the critical density. More concretely, competing scenarios are evaluated against data on galaxy clustering and distant supernova
A supernova is a powerful and luminous explosion of a star. It has the plural form supernovae or supernovas, and is abbreviated SN or SNe. This transient astronomical event occurs during the last evolutionary stages of a massive star or whe ...
s, and on the anisotropies in the cosmic microwave background
In Big Bang cosmology the cosmic microwave background (CMB, CMBR) is electromagnetic radiation that is a remnant from an early stage of the universe, also known as "relic radiation". The CMB is faint cosmic background radiation filling all spac ...
.
See also
* Alan Guth
* Andrei Linde
Andrei Dmitriyevich Linde (russian: Андре́й Дми́триевич Ли́нде; born March 2, 1948) is a Russian-American theoretical physicist and the Harald Trap Friis Professor of Physics at Stanford University.
Linde is one of the ...
* Anthropic principle
* Arrow of time
* Cosmological horizon
* Cyclic model
* Freeman Dyson
* General relativity
General relativity, also known as the general theory of relativity and Einstein's theory of gravity, is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915 and is the current description of gravitation in modern physics ...
* John D. Barrow
* Kardashev scale
* Multiverse
* Shape of the universe
* Timeline of the far future
* Zero-energy universe
References
Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
* Baez, J., 2004,
The End of the Universe
.
*
* Hjalmarsdotter, Linnea, 2005,
Cosmological parameters.
*
*
A Brief History of the End of Everything
a BBC Radio 4
BBC Radio 4 is a British national radio station owned and operated by the BBC that replaced the BBC Home Service in 1967. It broadcasts a wide variety of spoken-word programmes, including news, drama, comedy, science and history from the BBC's ...
series.
Cosmology at Caltech
* Jamal Nazrul Islam
Jamal Nazrul Islam (24 February 1939 – 16 March 2013) was a Bangladeshi mathematical physicist and cosmologist. He was a professor at University of Chittagong, served as a member of the advisory board at Shahjalal University of Science and Tec ...
(1983):
The Ultimate Fate of the Universe
'. Cambridge University Press
Cambridge University Press is the university press of the University of Cambridge. Granted letters patent by King Henry VIII in 1534, it is the oldest university press in the world. It is also the King's Printer.
Cambridge University Pr ...
, Cambridge
Cambridge ( ) is a university city and the county town in Cambridgeshire, England. It is located on the River Cam approximately north of London. As of the 2021 United Kingdom census, the population of Cambridge was 145,700. Cambridge bec ...
, England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to its west and Scotland to its north. The Irish Sea lies northwest and the Celtic Sea to the southwest. It is separated from continental Europe ...
. . (Digital print version published in 2009).
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ultimate Fate Of The universe
Physical cosmology