
Sexual reproduction is a type of
reproduction
Reproduction (or procreation or breeding) is the biological process
Biological processes are those processes that are vital for an organism
In biology, an organism (from Ancient Greek, Greek: ὀργανισμός, ''organismos'') is ...

that involves a complex
life cycle
Life cycle, life-cycle, or lifecycle may refer to:
Science and academia
*Biological life cycle, the sequence of life stages that an organism undergoes from birth to reproduction ending with the production of the offspring
*Life-cycle hypothesis, ...
in which a
gamete
A gamete ( /ˈɡæmiːt/; from Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek includes the forms of the Greek language
Greek ( el, label=Modern Greek
Modern Greek (, , or , ''Kiní Neoellinikí Glóssa''), generally referred to by speakers simply ...
(such as a
sperm
Sperm is the male reproductive Cell (biology), cell, or gamete, in anisogamous forms of sexual reproduction (forms in which there is a larger, female reproductive cell and a smaller, male one). Animals produce motile sperm with a tail known as ...

or
egg cell
The egg cell, or ovum (plural ova), is the female reproductive
Reproduction (or procreation or breeding) is the biological process by which new individual organisms – "offspring" – are produced from their "parent" or parents. Reproduct ...
) with a single set of
chromosome
A chromosome is a long DNA molecule with part or all of the genome, genetic material of an organism. Most eukaryotic chromosomes include packaging proteins called histones which, aided by Chaperone (protein), chaperone proteins, bind to and ...

s (
haploid
Ploidy () is the number of complete sets of chromosome
A chromosome is a long DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic material of an organism. Most eukaryotic chromosomes include packaging proteins called histones which, aided by ...
) combines with another to produce a
zygote
A zygote (, ) is a eukaryotic
Eukaryotes () are organism
In biology, an organism () is any organic, life, living system that functions as an individual entity. All organisms are composed of cells (cell theory). Organisms are ...

that develops into an organism composed of
cells
Cell most often refers to:
* Cell (biology), the functional basic unit of life
Cell may also refer to:
Closed spaces
* Monastic cell, a small room, hut, or cave in which a monk or religious recluse lives
* Prison cell, a room used to hold peopl ...
with two sets of chromosomes (
diploid
Ploidy () is the number of complete sets of chromosomes in a cell (biology), cell, and hence the number of possible alleles for Autosome, autosomal and Pseudoautosomal region, pseudoautosomal genes. Sets of chromosomes refer to the number of mate ...
). Sexual reproduction is the most common life cycle in
multicellular
A multicellular organism is an organism
In biology, an organism () is any organic, life, living system that functions as an individual entity. All organisms are composed of cells (cell theory). Organisms are classified by taxonomy (biolo ...
eukaryotes
Eukaryotes () are organism
In biology, an organism (from Ancient Greek, Greek: ὀργανισμός, ''organismos'') is any individual contiguous system that embodies the Life#Biology, properties of life. It is a synonym for "Outline ...
, such as
animals
Animals (also called Metazoa) are multicellular
A multicellular organism is an organism
In biology, an organism () is any organic, life, living system that functions as an individual entity. All organisms are composed of cells ...

,
fungi
A fungus (plural
The plural (sometimes abbreviated
An abbreviation (from Latin ''brevis'', meaning ''short'') is a shortened form of a word or phrase, by any method. It may consist of a group of letters, or words taken from the full ...

and
plants
Plants are predominantly photosynthetic
Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to Energy transformation, convert light energy into chemical energy that, through cellular respiration, can later be released to fuel t ...

. Sexual reproduction does not occur in
prokaryote
A prokaryote () is a single-celled organism
A unicellular organism, also known as a single-celled organism, is an organism
In biology, an organism (from Ancient Greek, Greek: ὀργανισμός, ''organismos'') is any individual contig ...
s (organisms without
cell nuclei
In cell biology
Cell biology (also cellular biology or cytology) is a branch of biology
Biology is the natural science that studies life and living organisms, including their anatomy, physical structure, Biochemistry, chemical process ...
), but they have processes with similar effects such as
bacterial conjugation
Bacterial conjugation is the transfer of genetic material between Bacteria, bacterial cells by direct cell-to-cell contact or by a bridge-like connection between two cells. This takes place through a pilus. It is a parasexual mode of reproduction in ...
,
transformation
Transformation may refer to:
Science and mathematics
In biology and medicine
* Metamorphosis, the biological process of changing physical form after birth or hatching
* Malignant transformation, the process of cells becoming cancerous
* Transf ...
and
, which may have been precursors to sexual reproduction in early eukaryotes.
In the production of sex cells in eukaryotes, diploid mother cells divide to produce haploid cells known as gametes in a process called
meiosis
Meiosis (; , because it is a reductional division) is a special type of of in organisms used to produce the , such as or . It involves two rounds of division that ultimately result in four cells with only one copy of each (). Additionall ...

that involves
genetic recombination
Genetic recombination (also known as genetic reshuffling) is the exchange of genetic material between different organism
In biology
Biology is the natural science that studies life and living organisms, including their anatomy, ph ...
. The
homologous chromosome
A couple of homologous chromosomes, or homologs, are a set of one maternal and one paternal chromosome
A chromosome is a long DNA
The structure of part of a DNA double helix
Deoxyribonucleic acid (; DNA) is a molecule
File:Pen ...
s pair up so that their
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid (; DNA) is a molecule
File:Pentacene on Ni(111) STM.jpg, A scanning tunneling microscopy image of pentacene molecules, which consist of linear chains of five carbon rings.
A molecule is an electrically neutral gro ...

sequences are aligned with each other, and this is followed by exchange of genetic information between them. Two rounds of cell division then produce four haploid gametes, each with half the number of chromosomes from each parent cell, but with the genetic information in the parental chromosomes recombined. Two haploid gametes combine into one diploid cell known as a
zygote
A zygote (, ) is a eukaryotic
Eukaryotes () are organism
In biology, an organism () is any organic, life, living system that functions as an individual entity. All organisms are composed of cells (cell theory). Organisms are ...

in a process called
fertilisation
Fertilisation or fertilization (see American and British English spelling differences#-ise.2C -ize .28-isation.2C -ization.29, spelling differences), also known as generative fertilisation, syngamy and impregnation, is the fusion of gametes ...

. The zygote incorporates genetic material from both gametes. Multiple
cell division
Cell division is the process by which a parent cell (biology), cell divides into two or more daughter cells. Cell division usually occurs as part of a larger cell cycle. In eukaryotes, there are two distinct types of cell division; a vegetative ...

s, without change of the number of chromosomes, then form a multicellular diploid phase or generation.
In
human reproduction
Human reproduction is any form of sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that involves a complex Biological life cycle, life cycle in which a gamete (such as a sperm or egg cell) with a single set of chromosomes (haplo ...
, each cell contains 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs. Meiosis in the parents' gonads produces gametes that each contain only 23 chromosomes that are genetic recombinants of the DNA sequences contained in the parental chromosomes. When the nuclei of the gametes come together to form a fertilized egg or zygote, each cell of the resulting child will have 23 chromosomes from each parent, or 46 in total.
In plants only, the diploid phase, known as the
sporophyte
350px, Sporophytes of moss during spring
A sporophyte () is the diploid
Ploidy () is the number of complete sets of chromosome
A chromosome is a long DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic material of an organism. Most eukaryo ...
, produces spores by meiosis that germinate and then divide by mitosis to form a haploid multicellular phase, the
gametophyte
A gametophyte () is one of the two alternating multicellular phases in the life cycles of plant
Plants are predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the Kingdom (biology), kingdom Plantae. Historically, the plant kingdom encompassed all ...
, that produces gametes directly by mitosis. This type of life cycle, involving alternation between two multicellular phases, the sexual haploid gametophyte and asexual diploid sporophyte, is known as
alternation of generations
Alternation of generations (also known as metagenesis or heterogenesis) is the type of that occurs in those s and in the and the that have distinct haploid sexual and diploid asexual stages. In these groups, a with ''n'' s alternates with ...

.
The
evolution of sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction is an adaptive feature which is common to almost all multi-cellular organisms (and also some single-cellular organisms) with many being incapable of asexual reproduction, reproducing asexually. Prior to the advent of sexual ...
is considered paradoxical,
[ because ]asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction
Reproduction (or procreation or breeding) is the biological process
Biological processes are those processes that are vital for an organism
In biology, an organism (from Ancient Gree ...
should be able to outperform it as every young organism created can bear its own young. This implies that an asexual population has an intrinsic capacity to grow more rapidly with each generation.John Maynard Smith
John Maynard Smith (6 January 1920 – 19 April 2004) was a British theoretical and mathematical evolutionary biologist and geneticist. Originally an aeronautical engineer during the Second World War
World War II or the Secon ...

''The Evolution of Sex'' 1978. This 50% cost is a fitness disadvantage of sexual reproduction. The two-fold cost of sex includes this cost and the fact that any organism can only pass on 50% of its own genes to its offspring. One definite advantage of sexual reproduction is that it impedes the accumulation of genetic mutation
In biology
Biology is the natural science that studies life and living organisms, including their anatomy, physical structure, Biochemistry, chemical processes, Molecular biology, molecular interactions, Physiology, physiological mechan ...
s.
Sexual selection
Sexual selection is a mode of natural selection
Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype
right , Here the relation between genotype and phenotype is illustrat ...
is a mode of natural selection
Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype
right , Here the relation between genotype and phenotype is illustrated, using a Punnett square, for the character of peta ...
in which some individuals out-reproduce others of a population because they are better at securing mates
Mates is an English surname, and may refer to:
* James Mates (born 1964), British newsreader and journalist
* Michael Mates (born 1934), British politician
* Frederick S. Mates, founded the Mates Investment Fund in 1967 that crashed in the bear mar ...

for sexual reproduction. It has been described as "a powerful evolutionary force that does not exist in asexual populations."
Evolution
The first fossil
A fossil (from Classical Latin
Classical Latin is the form of Latin language
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language
A classical language is a language
A language is a structured system of communication used by humans, inc ...

ized evidence of sexual reproduction in eukaryotes is from the Stenian
The Stenian Period (from grc, στενός, stenós, meaning "narrow") is the final geologic period in the Mesoproterozoic era (geology), Era and lasted from annum, Mya to Mya (million years ago). Instead of being based on stratigraphy, these da ...
period, about 1.05 billion years ago.[
][
]
Biologists studying evolution
Evolution is change in the heritable
Heredity, also called inheritance or biological inheritance, is the passing on of Phenotypic trait, traits from parents to their offspring; either through asexual reproduction or sexual reproduction, ...

propose several explanations for the development of sexual reproduction and its maintenance. These reasons include reducing the likelihood of the accumulation of deleterious mutations, increasing rate of adaptation to changing environments, dealing with competition, DNA repair
DNA repair is a collection of processes by which a cell identifies and corrects damage to the DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid (; DNA) is a molecule
File:Pentacene on Ni(111) STM.jpg, A scanning tunneling microscopy image of pentacene mol ...

and masking deleterious mutations. All of these ideas about why sexual reproduction has been maintained are generally supported, but ultimately the size of the population determines if sexual reproduction is entirely beneficial. Larger population
Population typically refers the number of people in a single area whether it be a city or town, region, country, or the world. Governments typically quantify the size of the resident population within their jurisdiction by a process called a ...

s appear to respond more quickly to some of the benefits obtained through sexual reproduction than do smaller population sizes.
Maintenance of sexual reproduction has been explained by theories that work at several levels of selection, though some of these models remain controversial. However, newer models presented in recent years suggest a basic advantage for sexual reproduction in slowly reproducing complex organisms.
Sexual reproduction allows these species to exhibit characteristics that depend on the specific environment
Environment most often refers to:
__NOTOC__
* Natural environment, all living and non-living things occurring naturally
* Biophysical environment, the physical and biological factors along with their chemical interactions that affect an organism or ...

that they inhabit, and the particular survival strategies that they employ.
Sexual selection
In order to reproduce sexually, both males and females need to find a mate
Mate may refer to:
Science
* Mate, one of a pair of animals involved in:
** Mate choice, intersexual selection
** Mating
* Multi-antimicrobial extrusion protein, or MATE, an efflux transporter family of proteins
Person or title
* Mate (colloqu ...

. Generally in animals mate choice
Mate choice is one of the primary mechanisms under which evolution can occur. It is characterized by a "selective response by animals to particular stimuli" which can be observed as behavior.Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon. "Mate Choice." Mate Choic ...
is made by females while males compete to be chosen. This can lead organism
In biology
Biology is the natural science that studies life and living organisms, including their anatomy, physical structure, Biochemistry, chemical processes, Molecular biology, molecular interactions, Physiology, physiological ...

s to extreme efforts in order to reproduce, such as combat and display, or produce extreme features caused by a positive feedback
Positive feedback (exacerbating feedback, self-reinforcing feedback) is a process that occurs in a feedback loop
Feedback occurs when outputs of a system are routed back as inputs as part of a chain
Image:Kettenvergleich.jpg, Roller c ...
known as a Fisherian runaway
Fisherian runaway or runaway selection is a sexual selection
Sexual selection is a mode of natural selection
Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype
right ...
. Thus sexual reproduction, as a form of natural selection
Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype
right , Here the relation between genotype and phenotype is illustrated, using a Punnett square, for the character of peta ...
, has an effect on evolution
Evolution is change in the heritable
Heredity, also called inheritance or biological inheritance, is the passing on of Phenotypic trait, traits from parents to their offspring; either through asexual reproduction or sexual reproduction, ...

. Sexual dimorphism
Sexual dimorphism is the condition where the sex
Sex is either of two divisions, typically male
Male (♂) is the sex of an organism that produces the gamete known as sperm. A male gamete can fuse with a larger female gamete, or ovum, in ...
is where the basic phenotypic trait
A phenotypic trait, simply trait, or character state is a distinct variant of a phenotypic
In genetics
Genetics is a branch of biology
Biology is the natural science that studies life and living organisms, including their ...
s vary between males and females of the same species
In biology, a species is the basic unit of biological classification, classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individu ...

. Dimorphism is found in both sex organ
A sex organ (or reproductive organ) is any part of an animal or plant that is involved in sexual reproduction. The reproductive organs together constitute the reproductive system. In animals, the testis in the male, and the ovary in the female, a ...
s and in secondary sex characteristics
Secondary sex characteristics are features that appear during puberty in humans, and at sexual maturity in other animals. These characteristics are particularly evident in the sexual dimorphism, sexually dimorphic phenotypic traits that distinguis ...
, body size, physical strength and morphology, biological ornament
A biological ornament is a characteristic of an animal that appears to serve a decorative function rather than a utilitarian function. Many are secondary sexual characteristic
Secondary sex characteristics are features that appear during puberty in ...
ation, behavior
Behavior (American English
American English (AmE, AE, AmEng, USEng, en-US), sometimes called United States English or U.S. English, is the set of variety (linguistics), varieties of the English language native to the United States. Cur ...
and other bodily traits. However, sexual selection is only implied over an extended period of time leading to sexual dimorphism.
Animals
Insects
Insect species make up more than two-thirds of all extant
Extant is the opposite of the word extinct
Extinction is the termination of a kind of organism
In biology
Biology is the natural science that studies life and living organisms, including their anatomy, physical structure, Bio ...
animal species. Most insect species reproduce sexually, though some species are facultatively parthenogenetic
Parthenogenesis (; from the Greek grc, παρθένος, translit=parthénos, lit=virgin, label=none + grc, γένεσις, translit=génesis, lit=creation, label=none) is a natural form of asexual reproduction in which growth and development ...
. Many insects species have sexual dimorphism
Sexual dimorphism is the condition where the sex
Sex is either of two divisions, typically male
Male (♂) is the sex of an organism that produces the gamete known as sperm. A male gamete can fuse with a larger female gamete, or ovum, in ...
, while in others the sexes look nearly identical. Typically they have two sexes with males producing spermatozoa and females ova. The ova develop into eggs that have a covering called the chorion
The chorion is the outermost fetal membrane
The fetal membranes are biological membrane, membranes associated with the developing fetus. The two chorioamniotic membranes are the amnion and the chorion, which make up the amniotic sac that surroun ...

, which forms before internal fertilization. Insects have very diverse mating and reproductive strategies most often resulting in the male depositing spermatophore
A spermatophore or sperm ampulla is a capsule or mass containing spermatozoa
A spermatozoon (pronounced , alternate spelling spermatozoön; plural spermatozoa; from grc, σπέρμα ("seed") and grc, ζῷον ("living being")) is a motile spe ...
within the female, which she stores until she is ready for egg fertilization. After fertilization, and the formation of a zygote, and varying degrees of development, in many species the eggs are deposited outside the female; while in others, they develop further within the female and are born live.
Birds
Mammals
There are three extant kinds of mammals: monotreme
Monotremes are prototherian mammals of the order Monotremata. They are one of the three main groups of living mammals, along with placentals (Eutheria) and marsupials (Metatheria). Monotremes are typified by structural differences in their brai ...
s, placental
The infraclass
In biological classification
In biology
Biology is the natural science that studies life and living organisms, including their anatomy, physical structure, Biochemistry, chemical processes, Molecular biology, mole ...
s and marsupial
Marsupials are any members of the mammal
Mammals (from Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language
A classical language is a language
A language is a structured system of communication
Communication (from Latin ' ...
s, all with internal fertilization. In placental mammals, offspring are born as juveniles: complete animals with the sex organ
A sex organ (or reproductive organ) is any part of an animal or plant that is involved in sexual reproduction. The reproductive organs together constitute the reproductive system. In animals, the testis in the male, and the ovary in the female, a ...
s present although not reproductively functional. After several months or years, depending on the species, the sex organs develop further to maturity and the animal becomes sexually matureSexual maturity is the capability of an organism to reproduction, reproduce. It may be considered synonymous with adulthood, but, in humans, puberty encompasses the process of sexual maturation and adulthood is based on cultural definitions.
Most mu ...
. Most female mammals are only fertile
Fertility is the capability to produce offspring through reproduction following the onset of sexual maturity. The fertility rate is the average number of children born by a female during her lifetime and is quantified Demography, demographicall ...
during certain periods during their estrous cycle, at which point they are ready to mate. Individual male and female mammals meet and carry out copulation
Sexual intercourse (or coitus or copulation) is a sexual activity typically involving the insertion and Pelvic thrust, thrusting of the penis into the vagina for Sexual stimulation, sexual pleasure, sexual reproduction, reproduction, or both.S ...
. For most mammals, males and females exchange sexual partners throughout their adult lives.[Research conducted by Patricia Adair Gowaty. Reported by ]
Fish
The vast majority of fish species lay eggs that are then fertilized by the male. Some species lay their eggs on a substrate like a rock or on plants, while others scatter their eggs and the eggs are fertilized as they drift or sink in the water column.
Some fish species use internal fertilization and then disperse the developing eggs or give birth to live offspring. Fish that have live-bearing offspring include the guppy
The guppy (), also known as millionfish and rainbow fish, is one of the world's most widely distributed tropical fish
Tropical fish are generally those fish
Fish are Aquatic animal, aquatic, craniate, gill-bearing animals that lack Li ...

and mollies or ''Poecilia
''Poecilia'' is a genus
Genus /ˈdʒiː.nəs/ (plural genera /ˈdʒen.ər.ə/) is a taxonomic rank
In biological classification
In biology, taxonomy () is the scientific study of naming, defining (Circumscription (taxonomy), circums ...
''. Fishes that give birth to live young can be ovoviviparous
Ovoviviparity, ovovivipary, ovivipary, or aplacental viviparity is a term used as a "bridging" form of reproduction between egg-laying oviparous and live-bearing viviparity , viviparous reproduction. Ovoviviparous animals possess embryos that ...
, where the eggs are fertilized within the female and the eggs simply hatch within the female body, or in seahorse
A seahorse (also written ''sea-horse'' and ''sea horse'') is any of 46 species of small marine fish
Fish are , , -bearing animals that lack with . Included in this definition are the living , s, and and as well as various extinct rel ...

s, the male carries the developing young within a pouch, and gives birth to live young.[
] Fishes can also be viviparous
Among animal
Animals (also called Metazoa) are multicellular eukaryotic organisms that form the Kingdom (biology), biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals Heterotroph, consume organic material, Cellular respiration#Aero ...
, where the female supplies nourishment to the internally growing offspring. Some fish are hermaphrodite
In reproductive biology
Reproductive biology includes both sexual and asexual reproduction.
Reproductive biology includes a wide number of fields:
* Reproductive systems
* Endocrinology
Endocrinology (from '' endocrine'' + '' -ology'') is a ...

s, where a single fish is both male and female and can produce eggs and sperm. In hermaphroditic fish, some are male and female at the same time while in other fish they are serially hermaphroditic; starting as one sex and changing to the other. In at least one hermaphroditic species, self-fertilization occurs when the eggs and sperm are released together. Internal self-fertilization may occur in some other species. One fish species does not reproduce by sexual reproduction but uses sex to produce offspring; ''Poecilia formosa
''Poecilia'' is a genus of fishes in the family Poeciliidae Poecculent of the order Cyprinodontiformes. These livebearers are native to fresh, brackish water, brackish and salt water in the Americas, and some species in the genus are euryhaline. A ...

'' is a unisex species that uses a form of parthenogenesis
Parthenogenesis (; from the Greek grc, παρθένος, translit=parthénos, lit=virgin, label=none + grc, γένεσις, translit=génesis, lit=creation, label=none) is a natural form of asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction is a typ ...
called gynogenesisGynogenesis, a form of parthenogenesis
Parthenogenesis (; from the Greek grc, παρθένος, translit=parthénos, lit=virgin, label=none + grc, γένεσις, translit=génesis, lit=creation, label=none) is a natural form of asexual reprodu ...
, where unfertilized eggs develop into embryos that produce female offspring. ''Poecilia formosa'' mate with males of other fish species that use internal fertilization, the sperm does not fertilize the eggs but stimulates the growth of the eggs which develops into embryos.
Reptiles
Amphibians
Mollusks
Plants
Animals have life cycles with a single diploid multicellular phase that produces haploid gametes directly by meiosis. Male gametes are called sperm, and female gametes are called eggs or ova. In animals, fertilization of the ovum by a sperm results in the formation of a diploid zygote that develops by repeated mitotic divisions into a diploid adult. Plants have two multicellular life-cycle phases, resulting in an alternation of generations
Alternation of generations (also known as metagenesis or heterogenesis) is the type of that occurs in those s and in the and the that have distinct haploid sexual and diploid asexual stages. In these groups, a with ''n'' s alternates with ...

. Plant zygotes germinate and divide repeatedly by mitosis to produce a diploid multicellular organism known as the sporophyte. The mature sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis that germinate and divide by mitosis to form a multicellular gametophyte phase that produces gametes at maturity. The gametophytes of different groups of plants vary in size. Mosses and other pteridophytic plants may have gametophytes consisting of several million cells, while angiosperms have as few as three cells in each pollen grain.
Flowering plants
Flowering plant
Flowering plants include multiple members of the clade Angiospermae (), commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the Greek#REDIRECT Greek
Greek may refer to:
Greece
Anything of, from, or related to Greece
Greec ...

s are the dominant plant form on land and they reproduce either sexually or asexually. Often their most distinguishing feature is their reproductive organs, commonly called flowers. The anther
The stamen (plural
The plural (sometimes abbreviated
An abbreviation (from Latin ''brevis'', meaning ''short'') is a shortened form of a word or phrase, by any method. It may consist of a group of letters, or words taken from the full ve ...
produces which contain the male gametophyte
A gametophyte () is one of the two alternating multicellular phases in the life cycles of plant
Plants are predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the Kingdom (biology), kingdom Plantae. Historically, the plant kingdom encompassed all ...
s that produce sperm nuclei. For pollination to occur, pollen grains must attach to the stigma of the female reproductive structure (carpel
Gynoecium (; ) is most commonly used as a collective term for the parts of a flower
A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom
Image:Cerisier du Japon Prunus serrulata.jpg, Cherry blossoms in Paris in full bloom.
In botany, blossoms ...
), where the female gametophytes are located within ovules enclose within the ovary
The ovary is an organ found in the female reproductive system
The female reproductive system is made up of the internal and external sex organs that function in reproduction of new offspring. In humans, the female reproductive system is im ...

. After the pollen tube grows through the carpel's style, the sex
Sex is either of two divisions, typically male
Male (♂) is the sex of an organism that produces the gamete known as sperm. A male gamete can fuse with a larger female gamete, or ovum, in the process of fertilization. A male cannot sexual r ...
cell nuclei from the pollen grain migrate into the ovule to fertilize the egg cell and endosperm nuclei within the female gametophyte in a process termed double fertilization
Double fertilization is a complex fertilization
Fertilisation or fertilization (see American and British English spelling differences#-ise.2C -ize .28-isation.2C -ization.29, spelling differences), also known as generative fertilisatio ...

. The resulting zygote develops into an embryo, while the triploid endosperm (one sperm cell plus two female cells) and female tissues of the ovule give rise to the surrounding tissues in the developing seed. The ovary, which produced the female gametophyte(s), then grows into a fruit
In botany
Botany, also called , plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist, plant scientist or phytologist is a scientist who specialises in this field. The term "botany" comes from the ...

, which surrounds the seed(s). Plants may either self-pollinate
Self-pollination is a form of pollination in which pollen from the same plant arrives at the Stigma (botany), stigma of a flower (in flowering plants) or at the ovule (in gymnosperms). There are two types of self-pollination: in autogamy, pollen is ...
or cross-pollinate
Pollination is the transfer of pollen
Pollen Tube Diagram
Pollen is a powdery substance consisting of pollen grains which are male microgametophytes of seed plants, which produce male gametes (sperm cells). Pollen grains have a hard coat m ...

.
In 2013, flowers dating from the Cretaceous
The Cretaceous ( ) is a geological period
A geological period is one of the several subdivisions of geologic time enabling cross-referencing of rocks and geologic events from place to place.
These periods form elements of a hierarchy of division ...

(100 million years before present) were found encased in amber, the oldest evidence of sexual reproduction in a flowering plant. Microscopic images showed tubes growing out of pollen and penetrating the flower's stigma. The pollen was sticky, suggesting it was carried by insects.
Nonflowering plants like fern
A fern (Polypodiopsida or Polypodiophyta ) is a member of a group of vascular plant
Vascular plants (from Latin ''vasculum'': duct), also known as Tracheophyta (the tracheophytes , from Greek τραχεῖα ἀρτηρία ''trācheia art ...

s, moss
Mosses are small, non-vascular flower
A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom
Cherry blossoms in Paris in full bloom.
In botany, blossoms are the flowers of stone fruit fruit tree, trees (genus ''Prunus'') and of some other plant ...

and liverwort
The Marchantiophyta are a division of non-vascular land plants commonly referred to as hepatics or liverworts. Like mosses and hornworts, they have a gametophyte
A gametophyte () is one of the two alternation of generations, alternating m ...
s use other means of sexual reproduction.
Ferns
Ferns produce large diploid sporophyte
350px, Sporophytes of moss during spring
A sporophyte () is the diploid
Ploidy () is the number of complete sets of chromosome
A chromosome is a long DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic material of an organism. Most eukaryo ...
s with rhizome
In botany
Botany, also called , plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist, plant scientist or phytologist is a scientist who specialises in this field. The term "botany" comes from the A ...

s, roots and leaves. Fertile leaves produce sporangia
A sporangium (; from Late Latin, ) is an enclosure in which spores are formed. It can be composed of a unicellular organism, single cell or can be multicellular organism, multicellular. All plants, fungus, fungi, and many other lineages for ...
that contain haploid spore
In biology
Biology is the natural science that studies life and living organisms, including their anatomy, physical structure, Biochemistry, chemical processes, Molecular biology, molecular interactions, Physiology, physiological mecha ...
s. The spores are released and germinate to produce small, thin gametophytes that are typically heart shaped and green in color. The gametophyte prothalli, produce motile sperm in the antheridia
An antheridium is a haploid structure or organ producing and containing male gametes (called ''antherozoids'' or sperm). The plural form is antheridia, and a structure containing one or more antheridia is called an androecium. Androecium is also th ...

and egg cells in archegonia
Image:Archegonium.jpg, 240px, Diagram of archegonium anatomy
An archegonium (pl: archegonia), from the ancient Greek ''ἀρχή'' ("beginning") and ''γόνος'' ("offspring"), is a multicellular structure or organ of the gametophyte phase of cert ...
on the same or different plants. After rains or when dew deposits a film of water, the motile sperm are splashed away from the antheridia, which are normally produced on the top side of the thallus, and swim in the film of water to the archegonia where they fertilize the egg. To promote out crossing or cross fertilization the sperm are released before the eggs are receptive of the sperm, making it more likely that the sperm will fertilize the eggs of different thallus. After fertilization, a zygote
A zygote (, ) is a eukaryotic
Eukaryotes () are organism
In biology, an organism () is any organic, life, living system that functions as an individual entity. All organisms are composed of cells (cell theory). Organisms are ...

is formed which grows into a new sporophytic plant. The condition of having separate sporophyte and gametophyte plants is called alternation of generations. Other plants with similar life cycles include ''Psilotum'', ''Lycopodium'' and ''Equisetum''.
Bryophytes
The bryophytes, which include liverwort
The Marchantiophyta are a division of non-vascular land plants commonly referred to as hepatics or liverworts. Like mosses and hornworts, they have a gametophyte
A gametophyte () is one of the two alternation of generations, alternating m ...
s, hornworts and moss
Mosses are small, non-vascular flower
A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom
Cherry blossoms in Paris in full bloom.
In botany, blossoms are the flowers of stone fruit fruit tree, trees (genus ''Prunus'') and of some other plant ...

es, reproduce both sexually and Vegetative reproduction, vegetatively. They are small plants found growing in moist locations and like ferns, have motile sperm with flagella and need water to facilitate sexual reproduction. These plants start as a haploid spore that grows into the dominant gametophyte form, which is a multicellular haploid body with leaf-like structures that photosynthesis, photosynthesize. Haploid gametes are produced in antheridia (male) and archegonia (female) by mitosis. The sperm released from the antheridia respond to chemicals released by ripe archegonia and swim to them in a film of water and fertilize the egg cells thus producing a zygote. The zygote
A zygote (, ) is a eukaryotic
Eukaryotes () are organism
In biology, an organism () is any organic, life, living system that functions as an individual entity. All organisms are composed of cells (cell theory). Organisms are ...

divides by mitotic division and grows into a multicellular, diploid sporophyte. The sporophyte produces spore capsules (sporangia
A sporangium (; from Late Latin, ) is an enclosure in which spores are formed. It can be composed of a unicellular organism, single cell or can be multicellular organism, multicellular. All plants, fungus, fungi, and many other lineages for ...
), which are connected by stalks (setae) to the archegonia. The spore capsules produce spores by meiosis and when ripe the capsules burst open to release the spores. Bryophytes show considerable variation in their reproductive structures and the above is a basic outline. Also in some species each plant is one sex (dioicous) while other species produce both sexes on the same plant (Monoicous, monoicous).
Fungi
Fungi are classified by the methods of sexual reproduction they employ. The outcome of sexual reproduction most often is the production of resting spores that are used to survive inclement times and to spread. There are typically three phases in the sexual reproduction of fungi: plasmogamy, karyogamy and meiosis
Meiosis (; , because it is a reductional division) is a special type of of in organisms used to produce the , such as or . It involves two rounds of division that ultimately result in four cells with only one copy of each (). Additionall ...

. The cytoplasm of two parent cells fuse during plasmogamy and the nuclei fuse during karyogamy. New haploid gametes are formed during meiosis and develop into spores. The adaptive basis for the maintenance of sexual reproduction in the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota (dikaryon) fungus, fungi was reviewed by Wallen and Perlin. They concluded that the most plausible reason for maintaining this capability is the benefit of DNA repair, repairing DNA damage, caused by a variety of stresses, through homologous recombination, recombination that occurs during meiosis
Meiosis (; , because it is a reductional division) is a special type of of in organisms used to produce the , such as or . It involves two rounds of division that ultimately result in four cells with only one copy of each (). Additionall ...

.
Bacteria and archaea
Three distinct processes in prokaryote
A prokaryote () is a single-celled organism
A unicellular organism, also known as a single-celled organism, is an organism
In biology, an organism (from Ancient Greek, Greek: ὀργανισμός, ''organismos'') is any individual contig ...
s are regarded as similar to Origin and function of meiosis, eukaryotic sex: bacterial transformation, which involves the incorporation of foreign DNA into the bacterial chromosome; bacterial conjugation
Bacterial conjugation is the transfer of genetic material between Bacteria, bacterial cells by direct cell-to-cell contact or by a bridge-like connection between two cells. This takes place through a pilus. It is a parasexual mode of reproduction in ...
, which is a transfer of plasmid DNA between bacteria, but the plasmids are rarely incorporated into the bacterial chromosome; and Prokaryote#Gene transfer, gene transfer and genetic exchange in archaea.
Bacterial transformation involves the genetic recombination, recombination of genetic material and its function is mainly associated with Sexual recombination#Recombinational repair, DNA repair. Bacterial transformation is a complex process encoded by numerous bacterial genes, and is a bacterial adaptation for DNA transfer. This process occurs naturally in at least 40 bacterial species. For a bacterium to bind, take up, and recombine exogenous DNA into its chromosome, it must enter a special physiological state referred to as competence (see Natural competence). Sexual reproduction in early single-celled eukaryotes may have evolved from bacterial transformation,[Bernstein H, Bernstein C, Michod RE. (2012)]
DNA Repair as the Primary Adaptive Function of Sex in Bacteria and Eukaryotes
". Chapter 1, pp. 1–50, in ''DNA Repair: New Research'', Editors S. Kimura and Shimizu S. Nova Sci. Publ., Hauppauge, New York. Open access for reading only. or from a similar process in archaea (see below).
On the other hand, bacterial conjugation is a type of direct transfer of DNA between two bacteria mediated by an external appendage called the conjugation pilus. Bacterial conjugation is controlled by plasmid, plasmid genes that are adapted for spreading copies of the plasmid between bacteria. The infrequent integration of a plasmid into a host bacterial chromosome, and the subsequent transfer of a part of the host chromosome to another cell do not appear to be bacterial adaptations.
Exposure of hyperthermophilic archaeal Sulfolobus species to DNA damaging conditions induces cellular aggregation accompanied by high frequency genetic marker exchange. Ajon et al. hypothesized that this cellular aggregation enhances species-specific DNA repair by homologous recombination. DNA transfer in ''Sulfolobus'' may be an early form of sexual interaction similar to the more well-studied bacterial transformation systems that also involve species-specific DNA transfer leading to homologous recombinational repair of DNA damage.
See also
*Amphimixis (psychology)
*Anisogamy
*Biological reproduction
*Hermaphroditism
*Isogamy
*Mate choice
*Mating in fungi
*Operational sex ratio
*Outcrossing
*Allogamy
*Self-incompatibility
*Sex
*Sexual intercourse
*Transformation (genetics)
References
Further reading
* Pang, K. "Certificate Biology: New Mastering Basic Concepts", Hong Kong, 2004
Journal of Biology of Reproduction
accessed in August 2005.
''Science Daily'', 3 February 2003
*
*
External links
Khan Academy, video lecture
{{Authority control
Sexual reproduction,
Developmental biology
Fertility
Reproduction
Sexuality