Love magic is the belief that magic can conjure sexual passion or

romantic love Romance or romantic love is a feeling of love for, or a strong attraction towards another person, and the courtship behaviors undertaken by an individual to express those overall feelings and resultant emotions. The ''Wiley Blackwell Encyc ...

. Love magic is often used in

literature Literature is any collection of written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially prose fiction, drama, and poetry. In recent centuries, the definition has expanded to includ ...

, like fantasy or mythology, and it is believed it can be implemented in a variety of ways, such as by written spells, dolls, charms,

amulet An amulet, also known as a good luck charm or phylactery, is an object believed to confer protection upon its possessor. The word "amulet" comes from the Latin word amuletum, which Pliny's ''Natural History'' describes as "an object that protect ...

s, potions, or rituals. It is attested to on

cuneiform Cuneiform is a logo-syllabic writing system, script that was used to write several languages of the Ancient Near East, Ancient Middle East. The script was in active use from the early Bronze Age until the beginning of the Common Era. It is nam ...

tablets from the ancient

Near East The ''Near East''; he, המזרח הקרוב; arc, ܕܢܚܐ ܩܪܒ; fa, خاور نزدیک, Xāvar-e nazdik; tr, Yakın Doğu is a geographical term which roughly encompasses a transcontinental region in Western Asia, that was once the hist ...

, in ancient Egyptian texts, in the Greco-

Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a letter ...

world, the

Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire ...

, and up to the present day. It is used in the story of

Heracles Heracles ( ; grc-gre, Ἡρακλῆς, , glory/fame of Hera), born Alcaeus (, ''Alkaios'') or Alcides (, ''Alkeidēs''), was a divine hero in Greek mythology, the son of Zeus and Alcmene, and the foster son of Amphitryon.By his adopt ...

and Deianeira and in Gaetano Donizetti's 1832 opera '' The Elixir of Love'' (''L'Elisir d'amore''),

Richard Wagner Wilhelm Richard Wagner ( ; ; 22 May 181313 February 1883) was a German composer, theatre director, polemicist, and conductor who is chiefly known for his operas (or, as some of his mature works were later known, "music dramas"). Unlike most o ...

's 1865 opera '' Tristan and Isolde'', and

Manuel de Falla Manuel de Falla y Matheu (, 23 November 187614 November 1946) was an Andalusian Spanish composer and pianist. Along with Isaac Albéniz, Francisco Tárrega, and Enrique Granados, he was one of Spain's most important musicians of the first hal ...

's 1915 ballet '' El amor brujo'' (''The magic of love'').

Ancient love magic

The earliest acts of love magic derive from the ancient Near East, dating to ca. 2200 BCE. Cuneiform tablets preserving rituals of erotic magic have been uncovered at Tell Inghara and Isin (present-day Iraq).R. Pientka, ‘Aphrodisiaka und Liebeszauber im Alten Orient’, in S. Parpola and R.M. Whiting (eds.), ''Sex and Gender in the Ancient Near East'' (2 vols; Helsinki, 2002), vol. II, pp. 507-522. Similar rituals are attested in ancient Egypt, for instance on an ostracon dated to the twentieth dynasty (twelfth-eleventh centuries BCE). J.F. Borghouts, ''Ancient Egyptian Magical Texts'' (Leiden, 1978), p. 1.

Hellenistic love magic

Spells of erotic attraction and compulsion are found within the syncretic magic tradition of

Hellenistic Greece Hellenistic Greece is the historical period of the country following Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the annexation of the classical Greek Achaean League heartlands by the Roman Republic. This culminated ...

, which incorporated Egyptian and

Hebraic Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved t ...

elements, as documented in texts such as the

Greek Magical Papyri The Greek Magical Papyri ( Latin: ''Papyri Graecae Magicae'', abbreviated ''PGM'') is the name given by scholars to a body of papyri from Graeco-Roman Egypt, written mostly in ancient Greek (but also in Old Coptic, Demotic, etc.), which each cont ...

and archaeologically on

s and other artifacts dating from the 2nd century BC (and sometimes earlier) to the late 3rd century A.D. These magical practices continued to influence private rituals in

Gaul Gaul ( la, Gallia) was a region of Western Europe Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's countries and territories vary depending on context. The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the Eas ...

among Celtic peoples, in

Roman Britain Roman Britain was the period in classical antiquity when large parts of the island of Great Britain were under occupation by the Roman Empire. The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410. During that time, the territory conquered wa ...

, and among

Germanic peoples The Germanic peoples were historical groups of people that once occupied Central Europe and Scandinavia during antiquity and into the early Middle Ages. Since the 19th century, they have traditionally been defined by the use of ancient and ear ...

.For example, J.H.G. Grattan and Charles Singer, ''Anglo-Saxon Magic and Medicine. Illustrated Specially from the Semi-Pagan Text Lacnunga'' (Oxford University Press, 1952); Felix Grendon, ''Anglo-Saxon Charms'' (Folcroft Library, 1974), ''passim'' (mostly on Christian elements and traditional magic); Anne van Arsdall, ''Medieval Herbal Remedies: The'' Old English Herbarium ''and Anglo-Saxon Medicine'' (Routledge, 2002)
p. 52ff.
with cautions about disentangling various strands of the magical tradition; Karen Louise Jolly, “Locating the Charms: Medicine, Liturgy, and Folklore,” in ''Popular Religion in Late Saxon England'' (University of North Caroline Press, 1996)
p. 96ff.
/ref> Erotic magic reflected gender roles in ancient Greece and dismissed modern conceptions about gender roles and sexuality. Christopher Faraone, a University of Chicago Classics professor specializing in texts and practices pertaining to magic, distinguishes between the magic of ''

eros In Greek mythology, Eros (, ; grc, Ἔρως, Érōs, Love, Desire) is the Greek god of love and sex. His Roman counterpart was Cupid ("desire").''Larousse Desk Reference Encyclopedia'', The Book People, Haydock, 1995, p. 215. In the earl ...

'', as practiced by men, and the magic of ''

philia ''Philia'' (; ), is one of the four ancient Greek words for love: ''philia'', '' storge'', ''agape'' and ''eros''. In Aristotle's '' Nicomachean Ethics'', philia is usually translated as "friendship" or affection. The complete opposite is c ...

'', practiced by women.Paul C. Rosenblatt, pg. 482. The two types of spells can be connected directly to the gender roles of men and women in Ancient Greece. Women used ''

'' spells because they were more dependent on their husbands. In marriage, women were powerless, as men were legally permitted to divorce. As a result, many used any means necessary to maintain their marriages. Several women resorted to philia spells as they believed it retained their beauty and kept peace of mind. Philia magic was used by women to keep their male companion at bay and faithful. Basic beliefs about sexual attitudes in Greece were dismissed by the findings in the philia love spells, potions, and rituals. The spells were not used by women to achieve sexual pleasure, but rather as a form of therapy or medicine. Women commonly used the philia spells in attempt to preserve their beauty and youth, which in effect would keep their beau faithful. Parallels can be drawn between philia spells and common medical practice by women today.Paul C. Rosenblatt, pg. 482-7 Cosmetic surgery could be seen as serving the same purpose as the philia spell in terms of beautification. Eros spells were mainly practiced by men and prostitutes served a completely different function in Ancient Greece. Eros spells were used to imbue lust and passion into women, compelling them to fulfill the man who invoked the spell's sexual desires. With limited freedom, women in

pursued emotional escape, aiming at more affection producing spells. Prostitutes were the notable minority of women who used eros spells. Prostitutes in

lived lives that were far more similar to men than women. They were financially free, could live where they chose, and were not expected to serve a single man and home. These were the only noted women to use Eros magic for sexual fulfilment.

Love magic in the Renaissance

Der Liebeszauber by Niederrheinischer Meister

During the later medieval period (14th to 17th century),

marriage Marriage, also called matrimony or wedlock, is a culturally and often legally recognized union between people called spouses. It establishes rights and obligations between them, as well as between them and their children, and between ...

developed into a central institution for public life. This was reflected in the adaptation of love magic: while the immediate desire was the act of intercourse itself, it was most often practiced in an attempt for a permanent union such as

. Magic was expensive and was believed to cause severe damage to the caster; therefore it was not taken lightly. Thus, spells were not just cast upon just anyone in the

Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ide ...

, but on those unions that held special importance. Men and women of status and favor were more often the targets of love magic. Economic or

social class A social class is a grouping of people into a set of hierarchical social categories, the most common being the upper, middle and lower classes. Membership in a social class can for example be dependent on education, wealth, occupation, inc ...

restrictions would often inhibit a

, and love magic was seen as a way to break those barriers, leading to social advancement.Matthew W. Dickie, pg. 564 While the spells were supposed to be kept secret, very rarely were they successful in this. However, if the victim realized that a spell was being cast upon them, believing in magic themselves, they would often submit to the believed enchantment, adding effectiveness to love magic. This communication of one's desire is essential within the concept of love magic as it enabled a timid person to approach the unapproachable. With the dominance of

Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism, monotheistic religion based on the Life of Jesus in the New Testament, life and Teachings of Jesus, teachings of Jesus, Jesus of Nazareth. It is the Major religious groups, world's ...

and

Catholicism The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...

in Europe during the

, elements of

seeped its way into the magic rituals themselves. Often, clay dolls or written spell scrolls would be hidden in the altar at churches, or holy candles would be lit in the rituals. The Host from a

Catholic Mass The Mass is the central liturgical service of the Eucharist in the Catholic Church, in which bread and wine are consecrated and become the body and blood of Christ. As defined by the Church at the Council of Trent, in the Mass, "the same Christ ...

would sometimes be taken and used in rituals to gain the desired result. Thus, love magic within the

period was both

Christian Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words '' Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι� ...

and

pagan Paganism (from classical Latin ''pāgānus'' "rural", "rustic", later "civilian") is a term first used in the fourth century by early Christians for people in the Roman Empire who practiced polytheism, or ethnic religions other than Judais ...

Love magic in literature and art

In literature and art, the motif of a genuine love spell is interwoven more often, and is sometimes made the starting point of tragic setbacks and complications. One of the earliest manifestations of the theme in the Western world is the story of

and Deianeira. A famous treatment of the subject is in

's 1865 opera '' Tristan and Isolde'', which in turn goes back to the same epic by Gottfried von Strassburg. Other examples of the use of love magic motif are

Donizetti Domenico Gaetano Maria Donizetti (29 November 1797 – 8 April 1848) was an Italian composer, best known for his almost 70 operas. Along with Gioachino Rossini and Vincenzo Bellini, he was a leading composer of the ''bel canto'' opera style duri ...

's 1832 opera '' The Elixir of Love'' (''L'Elisir d'amore'') and

's 1915 ballet '' El amor brujo'' (The magic of love).

Women in love magic

Love magic was seen as drawing “…heavily upon what was perceived as quintessentially feminine: fertility, birth, menstruation (seen as closely related to both fertility and birth), and a woman’s ‘nature’ or ‘shameful parts,’ that is, genitals”. This feminine attribute is reflected within the literature such as the ''

Malleus Maleficarum The ''Malleus Maleficarum'', usually translated as the ''Hammer of Witches'', is the best known treatise on witchcraft. It was written by the German Catholic clergyman Heinrich Kramer (under his Latinized name ''Henricus Institor'') and firs ...

'', and in the trials of the

Holy Office The Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith (DDF) is the oldest among the departments of the Roman Curia. Its seat is the Palace of the Holy Office in Rome. It was founded to defend the Catholic Church from heresy and is the body responsible ...

in which most of the cases brought before the council were women accused of bewitching men. This illustrates the common stereotype that men did not do magic. According to historians Guido Ruggiero and Christopher A. Faraone, love magic often was associated with prostitutes and courtesans. Women in these professions often held psychological power over their partners, with resentment sometimes resulting in drastic measures such as witchcraft accusations. In the

Early Middle Ages The Early Middle Ages (or early medieval period), sometimes controversially referred to as the Dark Ages, is typically regarded by historians as lasting from the late 5th or early 6th century to the 10th century. They marked the start of the M ...

there is some evidence that women were considered more likely to be practitioners of love magic, which was considered to be a lesser intellectual type of magic. For instance, in the works of

Regino of Prüm Regino of Prüm or of Prum ( la, Regino Prumiensis, german: Regino von Prüm; died 915 AD) was a Benedictine monk, who served as abbot of Prüm (892–99) and later of Saint Martin's at Trier, and chronicler, whose ''Chronicon'' is an important s ...

Burchard of Worms Burchard of Worms ( 950/965 – August 20, 1025) was the bishop of the Imperial City of Worms, in the Holy Roman Empire. He was the author of a canon law collection of twenty books known as the '' Decretum'', ''Decretum Burchardi'', or ''Decreto ...

and

Hincmar Hincmar (; ; la, Hincmarus; 806 – 21 December 882), archbishop of Reims, was a Frankish jurist and theologian, as well as the friend, advisor and propagandist of Charles the Bald. He belonged to a noble family of northern Francia. Biography ...

the practitioners of love magic are usually gendered as female. The view of women within the

can best be illustrated by the 1487 ''Malleus Maleficarum''. In the opening section of this text, it discusses the sexuality of women in relation to the devil. Heinrich Kramer wrote within his book that, "All witchcraft comes from carnal lust, which in women is insatiable." The Men of the Renaissance feared the sexual power of the opposing gender. They associated it with the devil, making witches out to be sexual partners with demons. Kramer makes the case that a witch received her powers by inviting the devil to enter into carnal relations. Through her sexuality she gains her power, and thus her sexuality is seen as evil and something to be feared. In many of the witchcraft accusations brought before the Holy Office in the Roman Inquisition, men accused women of binding their passions and sexuality by the use of their own sexuality. While within literature females dominate the witch world, some scholars believe that reality was much different. Matthew W. Dickie, a prominent magic scholar, argues that men were the main casters of love magic. Demographically, they suggest that the largest age group that practiced love magic were younger men targeting young, unobtainable women. There are a variety of explanations for why the literary world contrasted reality in this area, but a common interpretation is that men were trying to subtract themselves from association.Matthew W. Dickie, pg.564

Notes

References

*Matthew W. Dickie. “Who Practiced Love-Magic in Classical Antiquity and in the Late Roman World?” ''The Classical Quarterly'', New Series, Vol. 50, No. 2 (2000), pp. 563–583. Published by: Cambridge University Press *Olga Lucia Valbuena. “Sorceresses, Love Magic, and the Inquisition of Linguistic Sorcery in Celestina.” ''PMLA'', Vol. 109, No. 2 (Mar., 1994), pp. 207–224. Published by: Modern Language Association * Paul C. Rosenblatt. “Communication in the Practice of Love Magic.” ''Social Forces'', Vol. 49, No. 3 (Mar., 1971), pp. 482–487 Published by: University of North Carolina Press * Robert W. Shirley and A. Kimball Romney. “Love Magic and Socialization Anxiety: A Cross-Cultural Study.” ''American Anthropologist'', New Series, Vol. 64, No. 5, Part 1 (Oct., 1962), pp. 1028–1031. Blackwell Publishing *Saar, Ortal-Paz.
Some Observations on Jewish Love Magic: The Importance of Cultural Specificity
, ''Societas Magica'' 24 (2010), pp. 1–4. *Saar, Ortal-Paz. ''Jewish Love Magic: From Late Antiquity to the Middle Ages''. Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2017. *Ruggiero, Guido. ''Binding Passions''. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press, 1993 *Sack, Robert David. “Magic and Space” ''Annals of the Association of American Geographers'', Vol. 66, No. 2 (Jun., 1976), pp. 309–322 Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of the Association of American Geographers *Barbara Holdrige, 1430-1505 ''Malleus Maleficarum'' ound recording/ by Heinrich Kramer and James Sprenger ; translated by Montague Summers. Abridged by Barbara Holdridge] Publisher Caedmon, 1974 {{Fantasy fiction Love Magic (supernatural) Seduction Witchcraft